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TECHNICAL REPORTS

Plant and Environment Interactions

Agri-environmental Thresholds using Mehlich III Soil Phosphorus Saturation Index for Vegetables in Histosols

Dep. of Soils and Agri-Food Engineering, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada G1K 7P4

^* Corresponding author (leon-etienne.parent{at}sga.ulaval.ca)

Received for publication October 3, 2006.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
The P concentration in Norton Creek which drains cultivated Histosols in Quebec showed median concentration exceeding up to 14 times the environmental guideline of 0.03 mg total P L^–1. The aim of this study was to develop environmental and agronomic thresholds using soil tests to provide a tool for P management in Histosols. Soil samples were collected from Histosols across Quebec (82) and in fertilizer trials (66) to calibrate soil test methods against the degree of P saturation (DPS_OX) using the acid-oxalate method and setting _m = 0.4, and the water-extractable P (P_W) (Sissingh, 1971). The field trials on crop response to added P were conducted with carrots (8), potatoes (11), onions (10), Chinese cabbage (7), celery (10), and lettuce (20). Relative yields were computed as yield in control without P divided by highest yield with added P. The Mehlich III (M-III) P extraction was more closely related (r² = 0.73) to DPS_OX than the Bray 1 method (r² = 0.62) and the Florida extraction method (r² = 0.53). The [P/(Al+Fe)]_M-III ratio as index of P saturation (IPS_M-III) was the most closely related to DPS_OX (r² = 0.88) setting = 5. The critical [P/(Al+5Fe)]_M-III ratio of 0.05 at DPS_OX = 0.25 and P_W = 9.7 mg P L^–1 was validated by an independent study from North Carolina. The soil group (low- vs. high-IPS_M-III soils) significantly influenced crop response to added P. Critical agronomic IPS_M-III values were found between 0.10 and 0.15. Those environmental and agronomic benchmarks are instrumental for managing the P in vegetable-grown Histosols.

Abbreviations: _m, maximum saturation factor • DPS, degree of phosphorus saturation • FBD, field bulk density • IPS, index of phosphorus saturation • , weighing coefficient for Mehlich III-extracted Fe • M-III, Mehlich III method • OX, acid ammonium oxalate method • P_Bray1, P extracted according to the Bray 1 method • PES, plasma emission spectroscopy • P_Florida, water-extracted P according to the Florida (Sanchez, 1990) method • P_W, water-extracted P according to Sissingh (1971) • RBD, reconstituted bulk density • VPDH, von Post degree of humification

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
THE SUSTAINABLE P management of cultivated organic soils must take into account ecological impacts of the P fertilization on contiguous and global environment (Parent and Ilnicki, 2003). Cultivated Histosol areas are known to largely contribute to eutrophication of the Florida Everglades (Hortenstine and Forbes, 1972; Porter and Sanchez, 1992) and Lake Ontario (Nicholls and MacCrimmon, 1974; Miller 1979; Longabucco and Rafferty, 1989). Annual P losses were found to be in the range of 1 to 37 kg P ha^–1 in New York (Duxbury and Peverly, 1978), Massachussetts (Howes and Teal, 1995), and Ontario (Miller, 1979), but up to 168 kg P ha^–1 in the Everglades (Reddy, 1983).

Norton Creek, which drains Histosols used for vegetable production in Quebec, had poor water quality (0.28–0.60 mg total P L^–1), the median concentration exceeding 14 times the environmental guideline of 0.03 mg total P L^–1 (Simoneau, 1996). The P concentration in runoff is linked primarily to soil water-extractable P (P_W) (Pote et al., 1999). Runoff in cultivated bogs is generally low in P when small amounts of fertilizer are applied (Eck, 1990). Because dissolved P concentration was nine times that of particulate P, runoff and leaching of fertilizer P applied in large amounts to vegetable crops were believed to be the major contributors to P pollution of Norton Creek (Simoneau, 1996). Hamilton and Bernier (1975) and Parent and Khiari (2003) reported no significant response of vegetables to added P in Quebec, thus indicating overfertilization, high mineralization rate of organic P, or limited P fixation capacity. Unpublished incubation data (Duguet, 2004) showed that net mineralization rate averaged only 0.063 mg P kg^–1 d^–1 during 150 d of incubation in Quebec Histosols.

Early work attributed P fixation in organic soils to Al and Fe compounds (Droughty, 1930; Kaila, 1959; Larsen et al., 1959; Wondrausch, 1969). The P losses from cultivated organic soils were thus related to amounts of Al and Fe compounds reacting with P (Miller, 1979; Porter and Sanchez, 1992; Efimov et al., 1996; Litaor et al., 2003). Oxy-hydroxides of Al and Fe contributing to P sorption in acid soils generally increase with C content (Williams et al., 1957). The Al-P forms were found to be more available to plants than Fe-P forms (Anthony and Ellis, 1968). Levesque and Schnitzer (1967) and Bloom (1981) confirmed the formation of metal-P complexes with organic matter. In general, fulvo-Fe phosphates represent a poor source of P for plant growth (Levesque, 1970) unless the organo-metallic complex is highly saturated with P (Levesque, 1969; Efimov et al., 1996). The Fe may accumulate in substantial amounts as limonite and goethite in organic soils, especially where the subsoil is sandy and facilitates water movement (Naucke et al., 1993). Okruszko et al. (1962) were the first to propose a soil test based on a molar ratio between P and (Al+Fe) in organic soil materials.

Dutch researchers (Van Der Zee et al., 1987; Breeuwsma and Silva, 1992) defined the degree of phosphate saturation as follows:

[1]

where _m is the maximum saturation factor for total sorption (unitless) and P_OX, Al_OX, and Fe_OX are acid ammonium oxalate-extractable forms (mmol kg^–1). Selected values for _m were 0.5 in Litaor et al. (2003) for Israel Histosols and 0.4 in Breeuwsma et al. (1986) across Dutch soils comprising two histic epipedons. A critical level for DPS_OX (_m = 0.5) was set at 0.25 corresponding to 0.10 mg ortho-P L^–1 in the connecting groundwater of mineral soils (Breeuwsma and Silva, 1992).

Dissolved reactive P (<0.45 µm filtration) in wells averaged 0.190 mg P L^–1 in Israel Histosols showing DPS_OX (_m = 0.5) values of 0.065 ± 0.05 (Litaor et al., 2003). Litaor et al. (2003) attributed those high levels to recent P fertilization history combined with solute transport by preferential flow, although flushes of organo-metal-P complexes and mineralized organic P may also be involved. Prismatic or lump structure favorable to preferential flow has also been reported in temperate Histosols (Kuiper and Slager, 1963; Zeitz and Velty, 2002). Because a period of 1 to 2 wk is necessary to achieve P sorption equilibrium state in high-Fe Histosols (>49 g Fe_OX kg^–1) (Efimov et al., 1996), P fertilizer should thus be applied in early spring and well before crack formation, and soil P should be maintained below a critical environmental P saturation level throughout the year as measures to prevent P loss.

The commonly used soil P tests for organic soils are the Bray 1 method in Michigan (Lucas, 1982) and water extraction in Florida (Sanchez, 1990). However, the routine soil test in Quebec and Mid-Atlantic USA is the multi-element Mehlich III (M-III) extraction method (Mehlich, 1984) followed by multi-elemental determination using plasma emission spectroscopy (PES). Quebec researchers (Khiari et al., 2000; Pellerin et al., 2006a) found that a DPS_OX of 0.25 in mineral soils (_m = 0.5) corresponded to a Sissingh (1971) P_W value of 9.7 mg P L^–1 of soil. Because the M-III method (Mehlich, 1984) was found to be sensitive to soil texture (Giroux and Tran, 1985; Simard et al., 1991; Zheng et al., 2001) but not Sissingh (1971) P_W (Houba, 1986), Pellerin et al. (2006a) used that critical P_W value of 9.7 mg P L^–1 to define critical index of P saturation using the M-III method (IPS_M-III) for four textural groups varying in clay content.

To account for the important role of amorphous Al and Fe in the retention and release of soil P, Sims et al. (2002) recommended the (P/[Al+Fe])_M-III molar ratio (Mehlich, 1984) as an agri-environmental index for Mid-Atlantic USA. However, the M-III-extractable Fe was found to represent only 7 to 12% of (Al+Fe) on a molar basis in mineral soils (Khiari et al., 2000; Sims et al., 2002). In mineral soils containing 4 to 5% organic matter, the M-III method extracted 15 to 22% of oxalate Al compared to 2% of oxalate Fe (Khiari and Parent, 2005). Hence, the M-III-extractable Fe may require a weighing factor () to account for extraction efficiency, especially in Histosols where Fe may be present in large quantities (Efimov et al., 1996).

The index of P saturation using the M-III method is thus defined as follows:

[2]

where P_M-III, Al_M-III, and Fe_M-III are M-III-extractable forms (mmol kg^–1) and is a weighing coefficient for Fe. Khiari et al. (2000) and Pellerin et al. (2006a) used = 0 or 1 since the P_M-III/Al_M-III mass ratio and the (P_M-III)/(Al_M-III+Fe_M-III) molar ratio were closely related to each other. Sims et al. (2002) suggested to use = 1 to account for the role of Fe in P fixation in soils. However, has not been determined in high-Fe and high-C soils like organic soils.

A ratio expression reducing the effect of scooped soil density on soil test (Khiari et al., 1999) could be of significance in organic soils where bulk density is highly sensitive to soil preparation methods (Erviö, 1969; Van Lierop, 1981). Also, the tenfold increase in P extraction with the M-III compared to water extraction requires less sensitive analytical determination (Sanchez and Hanlon, 1990). As emphasized by Sanchez and Burdine (1988), there is a need to develop a soil P test related to P_W and reactive forms of Al and Fe to account for the high variability in soil P buffering capacities and make P fertilizer recommendations in Histosols.

The aims of the present study were (i) to calibrate an environmental (P/[Al+Fe])_M-III molar ratio threshold after optimizing against P_W and DPS_OX in Histosols, and (ii) to determine agronomic (P/[Al+Fe])_M-III thresholds for common vegetable crops grown on Histosols.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Experimental Setup for Fertilizer Trials
During the 2002 to 2005 period, we conducted fertilizer P trials on eight carrot (Daucus carota L.), 10 celery (Apium graveolens L.), 11 potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), 10 onion (Allium cepa L.), 20 lettuce (Latuca sativa L.), and seven Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. pekinensis) commercial sites in organic soils of southwestern Quebec, Canada. Average length of the growing period was 100 d for carrots, 88 d for celery, 66 d for Chinese cabbage (Pak choi), 45 d for Romaine and leaf lettuce, 60 d for crisphead lettuce, 110 d for onions, and 120 d for potato.

There were three replications and four to five P rates per site arranged in a randomized complete block design (Table 1). Sources of P were monoammonium phosphate (MAP) (11-52-0) or a mixture of dehydrated swine solids and monoammonium phosphate (3.2-15.5-0.8). It was assumed that manure N was 60% equivalent and manure K 100% equivalent compared to MAP similarly to solid manure (CRAAQ, 2003), but that manure P was equivalent to MAP. Nitrogen, K, and micronutrients were applied as recommended locally (CRAAQ, 2003). Fertilizers were broadcast before sowing or planting. Plots were four to six rows in width and 5 to 8 m long. Row spacing was 47 cm for carrots, lettuce, and onions, 55 for Chinese cabbage, 65 cm for celery, and 91 cm for potato. Other practices were those commonly used in the region. Yields were measured in two central rows or in the center of the bed over a length of 3 to 6 m (3–7 m² depending on the crop). Harvest date depended on the number of days to meet market requirement, the number of harvests during summer, and crop size category. The harvested portions of the plant in each plot were classified according to commercial standards and reported as commercial yield.

The P_W was extracted in a 60:1 H₂O/soil ratio according to Sissingh (1971) using NaCl across samples to clarify the suspension that was passed through a <0.45-µm filter. In contrast with mineral soils, where field bulk density (FBD) is generally similar to the reconstituted bulk density (RBD) as scooped weight (Khiari et al., 1999), the FBD may be only 0.45 times the RBD after drying and sieving the peat (Erviö, 1969). The P_W value in air-dried and sieved materials must be corrected accordingly to be representative of field conditions. We found that for cultivated organic soils FBD was 0.753 times RBD after drying and sieving. For pristine peat materials of known von Post degree of humification (VPDH) (Vaillancourt et al., 1999), peat FBD depends on VPDH as follows (Silc and Stanek, 1977):

[3]

The P_W values obtained from scooped soils was thus corrected for RBD as follows:

[4]

We used P_W-FBD in this study.

Statistical Analysis
The relationships between soil tests were determined by regression. The value in Eq. [2] was iterated until the r² value was maximized for the relationships between IPS_M-III and either P_W or DPS_OX. The relative yield was computed by dividing absolute yield in the control treatment by the highest yield among treatments with added P. The soil calibration study was conducted using the P response patterns of six crops. Type IV error may occur when interactions are examined (crop response by soil test combinations) although hypotheses require cell means to be analyzed or, conversely, cell means are examined when the hypotheses require that interactions be analyzed (Umesh et al., 1996). Soil fertility classification requires a minimum of two classes of crop response patterns defined graphically or by ANOVA (Nelson and Anderson, 1984). As a protection against type IV error, the six crops were compared in two groups of soil tests as delineated by a critical value of IPS_M-III above which most crops no longer responded to added P as shown by relative yield close to 100%. The separation between the two soil test groups was varied by 0.1 IPS_M-III units below and above an initial separation value, and F values were computed iteratively from ANOVA (SPSS vs. 13.1) for each IPS_M-III separator to test the effects of the six crops and the two soil groups and their interaction (factorial design with unequal replications). If the interaction was not significant, type IV error was considered negligible and relative yields were averaged across crops as one random variable. A constraint on the initial IPS_M-III separator was that all crops should be represented at least one time (one replication) in each soil group. Below 0.08 and above 0.17, there was no specimen of the onion crop, hence limiting the validity of IPS_M-III separator to five crops outside that range.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Soil Characteristics
In general, both soil datasets covered a similar spectrum of properties (Table 2). In the soil survey dataset, loss on ignition ranged between 292 and 991 g kg^–1, total carbon represented 0.57 of the loss on ignition, DPS_OX (0.458 ± 0.243) ranged between 0.033 and 1.035, and IPS_M-III (0.138 ± 0.103) ranged between 0.003 and 0.419. The IPS_M-III varied between 0.030 and 0.298 in the fertilizer trial dataset, so within the range of the soil survey dataset (Table 2). Hence, the soil survey dataset was representative of the fertilizer trial dataset.

Soil Phosphorus Tests
The relationship between P_M-III and P_Bray1 was found to be as follows in Quebec organic soils:

[5]

In other studies, soils high in amorphous Fe and Al and organic C had slopes between 1.5 and 2.2 (Ping and Michaelson, 1986; Michaelson et al., 1987; Davenport et al., 1997). The slope of 1.56 in Eq. [5] differed markedly from slopes close to one reported for mineral soils of southern and Mid-Atlantic USA (Mehlich, 1984), Ultisols, Alfisols and Mollisols (Hanlon and Johnson, 1984; Wolf and Baker, 1985), Cryochrepts (Michaelson et al., 1987), Spodosols, and Inceptisols (Tran et al., 1990; Parent and Marchand, 2006). Indeed, strongly acidic extractants such as M-III were found to extract larger quantities of P compared to the Bray 1 extractant and to be more closely related to agronomic yield in acid volcanic ash soils containing 7.8 to 10.9 g Fe_OX kg^–1, 9.2 to 14.3 g Al_OX kg^–1, and 60 to 80 g C kg^–1 (Ping and Michaelson, 1986; Michaelson et al., 1987). The P appeared to be more easily extracted by the M-III compared to the Bray 1 extractant in Histosol materials high in C, Fe_OX, and Al_OX (Table 2) where Al_pyr and Fe_pyr forms may react with P.

Model Development
The coefficient was varied between 0 and 10 to maximize the relationship between IPS_M-III on the one hand, and DPS_OX or P_W on the other (Fig. 1 ). The r² values tended to stabilize when increased above 3. We selected = 5 where r² reached its maximum value. The r² value was lower for the IPS_M-III-P_W relationship compared to IPS_M-III-DPS_OX because the variation in bulk density was more difficult to control in the P_W expression compared to the DPS_OX ratio.

View larger version (10K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. The r2 values for relationships between the [P/(Al+Fe)]M-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) and the degree of P saturation (DPSOX) (m = 0.4) or water-extractable P (PW) by varying the coefficient in IPSM-III.

(1) The relationship between IPS_M-III ( = 5) and P_W shows that for P_W = 9.7 mg P L^–1, IPS_M-III = 0.05 (Fig. 3 ).

A North Carolina Wasda muck containing 1705 mg Al_M-III kg^–1 and 197 Fe_M-III kg^–1 showed a change point at 115 P_M-III kg^–1 (Bond et al., 2006). The environmental critical IPS_M-III ratio was computed to be 0.05 as follows:

[6]

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Relationship between the [P/(Al+Fe)]M-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) ( = 5) and the degree of P saturation (DPSOX) (m = 0.4).

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Relationship between the [P/(Al+Fe)]Mf-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) ( = 5) and water-extractable P (PW).

View larger version (14K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Relationship between relative yield and the [P/(Al+Fe)]M-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) ( = 5) across Group A crops.

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Relationship between relative yield and the [P/(Al+Fe)]M-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) ( = 5) across Group B crops.

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6. Significance ( level for rejecting H0) of the partition between two soil groups below or above the [P/(Al+Fe)]M-III ratio as an index of P saturation (IPSM-III) separator on the x axis.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
The M-III method, recognized to be more appropriate than the Bray 1 method for soils high in C and oxy-hydroxides of Al and Fe, was evaluated in Histosols. A general expression of the degree of P saturation for organic soils using the M-III method (IPS_M-III) was proposed as [P/(Al+Fe)]_M-III, where was set at 5 to account for the role of Fe forms in P retention in organic soils. The IPS_M-III ( = 5) was closely related to the P_W and DPS_OX (_m = 0.4). The critical thresholds of 0.25 as DPS_OX and 9.7 mg P_W L^–1 suggested in the literature corresponded to the IPS_M-III value of 0.05. Above the IPS_M-III of 0.05, the P balance (added P minus P removal by the harvested portion of the crop) should be negative to minimize the risk of P contamination of surface and groundwater. The environmental threshold was found to be lower than agronomic thresholds (0.10, 0.13 and 0.15) across vegetables, hence confirming the higher environmental risk of adding P to Histosols compared to mineral soils. The 0.05 as well as 0.10, 0.13, or 0.15 IPS_M-III separators will be useful benchmarks for implementing beneficial P management practices minimizing the externalities of P fertilization of vegetable crops grown on Histosols.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
We thank the Conseil de Recherche en Pêche et Agroalimentaire du Québec and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for financial support. Thanks are extended to the Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l'Alimentation du Québec (St-Rémi, QC), Phytodata Inc. (Sherrington, QC), Technique Gazon Inc. (LaSalle, QC), and the participating vegetable growers.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 

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