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TECHNICAL REPORTS

Surface Water Quality

Runoff Water Quality from Turfgrass Established Using Volume-Based Composted Municipal Biosolids Applications

^a The Ohio State Univ. Agricultural Technical Inst., 1328 Dover Rd., Wooster, OH 44691
^b Soil and Crop Sciences Dep., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX 77843
^c Biological and Agricultural Engineering Dep., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX 77843

^* Corresponding author (hansen.209{at}osu.edu)

Received for publication June 30, 2006.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Municipal programs for turfgrass establishment recommend large volume-based application rates of composted municipal biosolids (CMB). This study compared runoff water quality among combinations of two common turfgrass establishment practices and two CMB sources. Bryan- or Austin-CMB were incorporated into 5 cm of soil at a rate of 12.5 or 25% by volume (v/v) on an 8.5% slope. Tifway bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x C. transvaalensis Burtt-Davy, var. Tifway] sprigs were planted and established; sod, produced at a separate site using either CMB amendment at the 25% v/v rate, was transplanted to the runoff plots on the same day. A mature stand of bermudagrass was used as a control. Runoff water was collected after each of eight natural rain events during the sampling period. Total runoff water loss (mm) was similar for the CMB-amended sprigged and transplanted sod stands. The concentration of total dissolved P (TDP) in runoff water was greatest from the transplanted sod in the first seven rain events (4.1 to 7.5 mg L^–1). The concentration of TDP in runoff water was similar at both the 12.5 and 25% v/v incorporation rates. Regression analysis indicated Mehlich-3-extractable soil test P concentrations in soil amended with CMB were positively correlated to concentration and mass loss of dissolved P in runoff. At similar application rates, dissolved P loss in runoff water was reduced by incorporating CMB into the soil on site rather than transplanting sod produced with CMB.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
MANY municipalities and some businesses produce composted municipal biosolids (CMB) and market it as a soil amendment for vegetation establishment, including turfgrass, on commercial and residential landscapes and sports fields (Dickerson, 1999; City of Austin, 2001; MMSD, 2004). Utilizing CMB across urban landscapes diverts waste streams from landfills and facilitates nutrient and carbon cycling. Historically, the use of CMB in turfgrass management systems focused on plant responses to amended soils (Flanagan et al., 1993; O'Brien and Barker, 1995; Loschinkohl and Boehm, 2001; Schlossberg and Miller, 2004). The CMB amendments decreased incidence of disease, enhanced color, reduced establishment time, and delayed water stress of turfgrass established on disturbed urban soils and in sod production fields (Murray et al., 1980; Smith, 1996; Loschinkohl and Boehm, 2001; Garling and Boehm, 2001; Boulter et al., 2002).

Depth- and volume-based CMB application rates are promoted through municipal programs. For example, the city of Austin, TX recommends incorporating CMB into a 15-cm depth of soil at 25% by volume or topdress a 0.6-cm depth of CMB over existing vegetation (City of Austin, 2001). Similarly, evaluations of CMB amendments for turfgrass have included large, volume-based CMB rates to enhance soil physical and chemical properties during establishment on poor quality soils (Landschoot and Waddington, 1987; Cisar, 1994; Angle, 1994). Yet, little information concerning nutrient losses in surface runoff from soils amended with the large volume-based CMB rates is available.

Line et al. (2002) identified compost and mulches among factors contributing to nutrient loss in runoff water from urban construction sites. Nutrient losses in runoff water from amended soil and turf are expected to increase with soil nutrient concentration, whether applied as inorganic or organic fertilizer sources (Gaudreau et al., 2002; Easton and Petrovic, 2004; Vietor et al., 2004). The nutrient loads in urban runoff are considered a major source of nonpoint surface water pollution (Carpenter et al., 1998).

Large, volume-based applications of CMB to soil need to be evaluated to quantify nonpoint-source nutrient losses in surface runoff from urban landscapes. In addition, the traditional approach of mixing CMB with urban soils before planting turfgrass sprigs needs to be compared to the practice of importing CMB in sod transplanted from turfgrass fields grown with CMB (Vietor et al., 2004). A previous study indicated transplanted sod delayed runoff of simulated rain applied to slopes (8%) on simulated construction sites when compared to wood or fiber blankets (Krenitsky et al., 1998). A comparison of runoff losses from CMB-amended soil and CMB-amended sod will contribute to optimal practices for minimizing sediment and nutrient losses during vegetation establishment and soil stabilization at urban construction sites.

The objectives of this study were to: (i) quantify and compare total and extractable P and N exported in a sod crop produced with two sources of CMB, (ii) quantify and compare P and N runoff losses from sites established by sod transplanted from CMB-produced turfgrass with turfgrass sprigged in CMB-amended soil, and (iii) investigate the relationship between P concentrations and mass losses in runoff water to extractable soil P concentrations.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Turfgrass Sod Production
The bermudagrass harvested for sod in this study was part of a broader experiment initiated in May 2004. Six sod production treatments were imposed under irrigated conditions at the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Turfgrass Field Laboratory, College Station, TX. The treatments were comprised of a control (0 kg P ha^–1), inorganic P fertilizer (50 kg P ha^–1), and two CMB sources topdressed at 12.5 and 25% by volume of the 5-cm depth of soil. The two CMB rates represent 50 and 100% of the volume-based rates recommended for urban soils in Austin, TX (City of Austin, 2001). Treatments differed with respect to P source and rate. The six treatments were replicated four times in a randomized complete block design, yet only two were selected for transplanting purposes. The two selected treatments matched the recommended CMB application rate of 25% by volume (v/v). The CMB sources were purchased from the cities of Austin and Bryan, TX and are identified as such hereafter. Results of an analysis of Austin and Bryan CMB are presented in Table 1.

The bermudagrass was mowed to a 3-cm height and clippings were returned to the plots. Turfgrass sod was harvested at a 2.5-cm depth on 26 Aug. 2004. Four 10-cm diam. plugs were sampled from each plot. The plugs were used to estimate total P and N amounts in soil and plant components and extractable P and N in the soil component of the harvested sod layer. Plant and soil components of sod were separated in an acidified (pH = 4) wash solution to reduce N loss. The wash solution was combined with soil and dried at 60 C. Soil and plant components were then weighed, ground, subsampled, and analyzed.

Runoff Experiments
Seven treatments were imposed on twenty-one runoff plots on 26 Aug. 2004. The seven treatments consisted of an unfertilized bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) stand (control), sod transplanted from turfgrass plots amended with Bryan- or Austin-CMB at establishment, and four treatments where sprigs were planted into a 5-cm layer of sandy-clay loam soil mixed with Bryan- or Austin-CMB at 12.5 or 25% by volume. The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design comprising three replications.

Each plot measured 1.5 m by 4 m (Gaudreau et al., 2002; Vietor et al., 2004). A 10-cm width of sheet metal was inserted to a 2.5-cm depth around plot perimeters to isolate and channel runoff through individual H-flumes into uncovered 311-L galvanized tanks. The collection tanks were emptied and cleaned between runoff events.

Within the plot, surfaces were excavated to a 5-cm depth to simulate a disturbed urban landscape and clear vegetation before treatments were imposed, except for the control. Soil and CMB volumes were determined by calculating the volume a 5-cm layer of soil would occupy in the plot areas. Soil and CMB volumes were weighed before mixing. An electric cement mixer was used to thoroughly incorporate CMB into soil before the soil/CMB mix was evenly applied over the plot area. A manual roller was used to compact the soil mix and to prepare an adequate soil bed for planting bermudagrass sprigs. The turfgrass sod was harvested and transplanted the same day CMB products were incorporated into the soil and sprigs were planted on the runoff plots. A sod cutter, with a 45.7-cm cutting blade, was used to harvest the turfgrass at a depth of 2.5 cm. The individual sod pieces were cut at 91-cm intervals and the harvested sod strips were laid parallel to the slope, inline with the H-flumes.

Runoff volumes of eight selected rainfall events were measured and sampled from 28 Aug. 2004 through 1 Apr. 2005. The maximum tank volume was 311 L, which was related to the physical depth of the water in the tank (590 mm). The reported depth of runoff water (mm) was calculated by measuring the volume of water captured in each tank and relating this back to the plot area. Runoff was sampled immediately after rain events or before collection tanks overflowed.

Three plugs (10-cm diam. and 5-cm depth) were sampled from plots after the final runoff event. The plugs were washed in an acidified solution (pH = 4) to separate plant tissue from soil and CMB residues similar to the methods described in the Turfgrass Sod Production section. The soil and wash solution were combined and oven-dried at 60°C for 24 h.

Laboratory Analysis
Total Kjeldahl N (TKN), nitrate N (NO₃–N), total P (TP), Mehlich-3-extractable P (STP), and water-extractable P (WEP) of amended soil and transplanted sod were measured at the start and end of the runoff sampling period. Turfgrass, CMB, sediment, and soil samples were digested according to a modified Kjeldahl method (Parkinson and Allen, 1975). The TKN concentration in digests was measured colorometrically (Dorich and Nelson, 1983). The Mehlich 3 method was used to extract plant-available P from amended soil (Mehlich, 1984). The NO₃–N in compost-amended soil was extracted as described by Keeney and Nelson (1982). In addition, NO₃–N and P were extracted in distilled water to quantify nutrients susceptible to loss through leaching and runoff. One g soil was extracted in 10 mL distilled water for 1 h on an orbital shaker. An auto analyzer was used to quantify NO₃–N in extracts through cadmium reduction (Dorich and Nelson, 1984).

The runoff water samples were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C or placed on ice before centrifuging a 100-mL subsample. Centrifuging and filtering were initiated within 24 h of runoff, except for the first rain event on 28 Aug. 2004. Samples from the first event were refrigerated for 36 h at 4°C before centrifuging. Runoff water subsamples were centrifuged at 3600 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant was decanted and filtered (<0.45 µm) for analysis of total dissolved P (TDP) and dissolved reactive P (DRP). Subsamples of filtrate were submitted to the Texas Cooperative Extension Soil, Water, and Forage Testing Laboratory for analysis of TKN, NO₃–N, and TDP. The sediment recovered during centrifuging and filtering was dried, weighed, and ground for analysis and computations of TP and TKN in sediment transported in runoff water. Concentrations of TP in digests and TDP in extracts of soil and filtrate of runoff were analyzed through inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP). The DRP in water samples and extracts of CMB and soil was determined colorometrically within 24 h of filtering (D'Angelo et al., 2001).

The CMB were sampled and analyzed for nutrients and other minerals. Total N in the Bryan- and Austin-CMB was determined by combustion (McGeehan and Naylor, 1988). A nitric acid digest was used to dissolve the Bryan- and Austin-CMB and an ICP was used to determine the mineral content (P, K, Ca, Mg, and Na) (Havlin and Soltanpour, 1989).

Statistical Analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (SAS version 9.0) and mean separations among treatments were conducted for sod production and runoff experiments (SAS Institute Inc., 2000). In addition, ANOVA among treatments was completed for individual runoff events if interactions between treatments and sampling dates were significant. Statistical significance was selected at = 0.05. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the relationship of mean concentration and mass loss of TDP in runoff to STP and WEP concentrations in soil during eight rain events. A t test was performed to determine any significant difference between the slope coefficients of the two CMB sources (Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978).

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Soil
The concentration of TP in the transplanted sod layer increased from 138 mg kg^–1 in the control to 1179 and 2120 mg kg^–1 in sod when Bryan- and Austin-CMB were topdressed over sprigs on the sod production plots. Similarly, the STP concentration in the harvested sod layer was increased from 18 mg kg^–1 in the control to 483 and 646 mg kg^–1, respectively, in the soils amended by Bryan- and Austin-CMB applications. Bermudagrass has been shown, in Texas, not to respond to P fertilizer once STP concentration exceeds 42 mg kg^–1 (Texas Agricultural Extension Service, 2000). Soil nutrient concentrations above that of annual crop requirements can contribute to loss of dissolved and sediment-bound nutrients in runoff water (Carpenter et al., 1998). The concentration of STP in the harvested sod layer exceeded bermudagrass requirements by over 10-fold. Similar with soil P, the TKN increased from 640 mg kg^–1 to 3753 and 4740 mg kg^–1 for the Bryan- and Austin-CMB, respectively, in the sod layer. Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the sod layer were low and not different from the control and CMB-amended soils. The soil remaining after sod harvest did not exhibit appreciable P or N nutrient gains from the CMB products applied.

Compost source and bermudagrass establishment practice significantly contributed to increased soil P and N concentrations. Consequently, this increased the potential for soil nutrient loss in runoff. Soil NO₃–N and TKN concentrations in CMB-produced sod were greater than sprigged treatments in which soil was mixed with the two rates of Bryan-CMB (Table 2). For each CMB source, transplanted sod significantly increased soil TKN concentration compared to equal and lesser rates that were incorporated within the 5-cm soil depth of sprigged treatments. In addition to diluting concentration of applied NO₃–N or TKN near the soil surface, incorporation of CMB could reduce potential transport and loss in surface runoff (Table 2).

Runoff Water
Variation of runoff depth and concentration and mass loss of N and P forms and sediment were analyzed separately for each runoff event to accommodate a significant interaction between treatments and runoff events. Rainfall depths varied between 12 and 49 mm and totaled 210 mm during the eight events. Yet, runoff depth only varied among treatments on the first event. The first event occurred 2 d after treatments were imposed on the runoff plots. Runoff depth was two times greater for transplanted sod than for the established bermudagrass control and turf sprigged into soil mixed with the 12.5% rate of Austin-CMB on 28 Aug. 2004. The observation of comparatively more runoff water from imported sod plots is thought to be the result of little, if any, bermudagrass root growth into the soil on the hill slope; therefore, water may not have been restricted from flowing down slope between the sod and the bare soil surface. Runoff depth did not differ among the two sources and rates of CMB incorporated in sprigged treatments (data not shown). Runoff water loss diminished as Tifway bermudagrass established from sprigs. Runoff water loss declined from 67% of rainfall in the first event to only 25% of rainfall in the final runoff event.

Concentrations of TDP in runoff water differed among treatments during each of seven rain events in 2004 and one event in 2005 (Table 3). During the first seven rain events, TDP concentrations in runoff water from transplanted sod were significantly greater than from the control and sprigged treatments amended with CMB (Table 3). The TDP concentration in runoff water was much greater from plots receiving CMB-amended transplanted sod than from the plots where CMB were incorporated into the soil before sprigging. Runoff water from the transplanted sod plots had a four- to fivefold greater concentration of TDP than from sprigged plots. The magnitude of the difference diminished during the subsequent rain events. Finally, the TDP concentration difference between transplanted sod and sprigged plots was not apparent by the last rain event sampled for this study (Table 3).

Filtrate concentrations of TKN among establishment treatments were indicative of variation of mass loss of TKN in runoff (Table 4). Although an interaction between treatment and rainfall event was significant, the ranking of mean TKN concentrations in runoff among treatments was similar over rain events (data not shown). During four runoff events after treatments were applied, mean TKN concentration in runoff was significantly greater for sod transplanted from turf produced with Austin-CMB (11.2 mg L^–1) than for turf produced with Bryan-CMB (8.8 mg L^–1). During five runoff events, mean TKN concentration in runoff from sod grown with Austin-CMB (12.2 mg L^–1) and Bryan-CMB (10.0 g L^–1) were significantly greater than the control and soil mixed with either CMB source (5.5 mg L^–1) before sprigging. Runoff concentration of TKN among treatments over the first six runoff events reflected similar treatment differences in soil TKN concentration (Table 2).

The magnitude of treatment differences in mass loss (mg m^–2) of TDP contributed to an interaction between treatment and event, but the mean rank among treatments was consistent among events. The mean mass loss of TDP in runoff from transplanted sod was less for Bryan-CMB (96 mg m^–2)- than Austin-CMB (153 mg m^–2)-amended sod source during only two of eight rain events. In addition, mean TDP mass loss in runoff was consistently greater for sod produced with Austin-CMB (106 mg m^–2) or Bryan-CMB (76 mg m^–2) than from the control and sprigged treatments amended with volume-based CMB rates (26 mg m^–2). Similar treatment differences were observed for mass loss of TDP summed over eight runoff events (Table 4). Consistent with results of Tarkalson and Mikkelsen (2004), variation of total mass loss of TDP among treatments indicated incorporation of either CMB source effectively limited TDP mass loss compared to CMB imported with transplanted sod. Vietor et al. (2004) reported greater TDP losses in runoff water when composted dairy manure was applied to sprigged bermudagrass rather than imported with transplanted sod. In contrast to the present study, the composted dairy manure was topdressed on sprigged treatments rather than incorporated.

A major portion of TDP mass loss was in the DRP fraction for all treatments (Table 4). The DRP mass loss (mg m^–2) was greatest over eight rain events for transplanted sod (Table 4). Yet, the fraction of TDP mass loss in DRP was 50% lower in runoff from the transplanted sod than from CMB mixed in the 0- to 5-cm soil layer. The DRP mass loss in runoff from sprigged treatments ranged between 57 and 77% of the TDP mass loss over eight runoff events (Table 4). Previous observations of DRP loss in runoff indicated surface applications of manure, rather than soil, was the primary source of runoff P, which determined the percentage of DRP in TP losses (Kleinman et al., 2002). Conversely, DRP loss from manure mixed with soil was similar to unamended soil and related to soil P concentration and desorption of P from soil.

Sediment loss in runoff varied among treatments during the first two runoff events after treatments were established and on 1 November. Sediment loss, totaled over eight runoff events, was less for transplanted sod than for three sprigged treatments in which CMB was mixed with soil (Table 5). The total mass of sediment was two to three times greater for sprigged compared to transplanted sod treatments. Previous observations of runoff loss under simulated rain indicated runoff loss of suspended solids from soil mixed with manure was 200% greater than from topdressed manure (Kleinman et al., 2002).

Mass losses of TP and TKN in sediment were similar in magnitude to mass losses of TDP and TKN in runoff water over the eight runoff events for sprigged treatments in which CMB was incorporated (Tables 4 and 5). In contrast, import of Bryan-CMB in transplanted sod reduced sediment-bound losses to 49% of dissolved TKN and to 22% of TDP. Yet, the high TKN and TP concentrations in sod imported from turf grown with Austin-CMB diminished differences between mass losses of sediment-bound and dissolved N and P forms (Tables 2 and 5). Mass loss of TKN in sediment was 76% of dissolved TKN in runoff from sod grown with Austin-CMB (Tables 4 and 5). Similarly, TP in sediment was 56% of TDP in runoff water.

Compared to TKN, NO₃–N mass losses differed among treatments during only three runoff events (Table 4). The sum of mass losses over eight runoff events indicated NO₃–N mass loss from transplanted sod and sprigged treatments amended with Austin-CMB were significantly greater than the established bermudagrass control (Table 4). Yet, variation of mass loss of NO₃–N was not related to variation of soil test or runoff concentrations of NO₃–N among treatments.

Relationship between Soil and Runoff Losses
Mean concentration and mass loss of TDP in runoff were regressed against WEP and STP for each treatment replication (Fig. 1 and 2 ). Previous evaluations have questioned the utility of STP alone for managing the risk of direct P loss in runoff from fertilizers and organic wastes applied to soil (Sims et al., 2000). Eghball et al. (2002) reported runoff losses of dissolved P forms were not well correlated to STP concentrations just after organic nutrient sources are applied. In contrast, Vietor et al. (2002) reported a positive, direct relationship between mean TDP loss in runoff water and STP for sod transplanted from turfgrass topdressed with P-based rates of composted dairy manure. A similar study of P transfer in runoff after application of biosolids and fertilizer indicated P release was related to amounts extracted in water (Withers et al., 2001).

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. (a) Mean concentration and (b) mass loss of total dissolved P (TDP) in runoff water from eight rain events vs. soil test phosphorus concentration in the 0- to 5-cm soil depth. Data points represent the plots in the study where Austin and Bryan sources of composted municipal biosolids (CMB) were applied to soil for sod production at 25% by volume or were incorporated at 12.5 and 25% by volume before sprigging bermudagrass on the runoff plots.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. (a) Mean concentration and (b) mass loss of total dissolved P (TDP) in runoff water from eight rain events vs. water-extractable P (WEP) concentration in the 0- to 5-cm soil depth. Data points represent the plots in the study where Austin and Bryan sources of composted municipal biosolids (CMB) were applied to soil for sod or were incorporated at 12.5 and 25% by volume before sprigging bermudagrass on the runoff plots.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Nutrient concentration of CMB and different rates and methods of CMB application affected nutrient export through bermudagrass sod harvests and impacts of sod on water quality. Surface applications of CMB sources at volume-based rates enabled complete removal of applied N and P forms in a single sod harvest. Yet, sod transplanted from soils receiving volume-based CMB rates contributed to greater soil and runoff concentrations and mass loss of N and P forms than volume-based CMB rates incorporated in soil. Although import of CMB in transplanted sod reduced sediment loss compared to CMB-amended soil sprigged with bermudagrass, imports of CMB in sod contributed to runoff loss through dissolved and sediment fractions. The high concentrations of TKN, TP, STP, and WEP in sod amended with Austin-CMB were consistently associated with greater mass loss of the respective nutrients in runoff compared to CMB-amended soil in sprigged treatments. Conversely, incorporation of CMB in soil minimized variation of mass loss of TP and TKN in solution and sediment among sprigged treatments and the control even though CMB increased soil concentrations of P and N. Yet, regression analysis indicated concentrations of STP and WEP in transplanted sod or soil amended with CMB was directly and positively related to concentration and mass loss of TDP in runoff. The use of STP concentration alone may not be an adequate indicator of TDP concentration in runoff because soil amended with different sources of CMB were observed to release TDP differently based on variation of the regression relationships. However, a general increase of STP concentration in soil sufficiently increased TDP concentrations in runoff to be useful as a general predictor of CMB impacts on water quality.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 

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