HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Agricola Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Related Collections Soil Fertility and Productivity Ecosystem Management Fire

TECHNICAL REPORTS

Wetlands and Aquatic Processes

Peat Fire Effects on Some Properties of an Artificially Drained Peatland

Department of Soil Science, Kahramanmaras University, 46060 Kahramanmaras, Turkey

^* Corresponding author (hdikici{at}ksu.edu.tr)

Received for publication May 5, 2005.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
The management of artificially drained organic soils is a very important issue, since the accelerated mineralization and sometimes peat fires alter physical and chemical properties of soils and the availability of plant nutrients. This study was performed to determine relatively short- and long-term effects of peat fires on some physical and chemical properties of soils in the artificially drained Gavur Lake Peatland of Turkey. To achieve this objective, measured properties of soils burned in 2001, burned in 1965, and unburned were compared. The results indicated that soil bulk density, pH, amounts of soluble salts, CaCO₃, and concentrations of ammonium acetate–extractable (AAE) Ca, Mg, K, and Na were significantly higher for both sampling depths in the burned areas. The areas burned in 2001 had higher pH, soluble salts, and the concentrations of AAE Ca, Mg, and K compared with sites burned in 1965, and this was reasoned with leaching losses and plant uptake of these basic cations for four decades in the latter. Percent saturation and organic carbon contents of soils, however, were significantly lower in the burned areas for both sampling depths. Olsen P levels were not significantly different between the sites. This work clearly shows that alterations in soils properties with peat fires do not recover in the long term.

Abbreviations: AAE, ammonium acetate–extractable • DSI, State Hydraulic Works • TIGEM, General Directorate of State Owned Farm Operations

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
FIRE causes changes in soil physical and chemical properties, and the nature of these changes can be variable depending on soil property, fire severity, and fire fuel (Neary et al., 1999). Indeed, sometimes an increase is observed in nutrient levels after fire (Ketterings and Bingham, 2000; Tomkins et al., 1991), and sometimes no changes take place (Laubhan, 1995). The pathways of fire related nutrient losses are ash convection, volatilization, mineralization, erosion, runoff, and leaching (Neary et al., 1999).

Cade-Menun et al. (2000) mention that increases in soil pH and in the availability of P, Ca, and Mg are frequently observed post-fire changes. Organic C losses from 75% to complete volatilization following a catastrophic-stand replacing fire have been reported (DeBell and Ralston, 1970; Neary et al., 1999). Increases in plant available Ca, Mg, K, and P and decreases in exchangeable acidity and organic C with fire severity have been reported (Ketterings and Bingham, 2000; Menaut et al., 1993). The accumulation of some nutrients in burned soils was reasoned with high volatilization temperatures of the nutrients (Raison et al., 1985). Unlike carbon, potassium (760°C), sodium (880°C), magnesium (1107°C), and calcium (1240°C) require higher temperatures for volatilization (Weast, 1988). Significant increases in pH of burned soils have also been observed due to the displacement of H⁺ ions by base cations on exchange sites (Arocena and Opio, 2003; Jensen et al., 2001). Giardina et al. (2000) stated that fire related pH increases can affect soil nutrient availability.

Fires can be beneficial or deleterious to ecosystems, depending on their severity. The fertility of soils increases after low impact fires especially in the short term (Romanya et al., 1994; Dumontet et al., 1996; Ivanauskas et al., 2003; Ilstedt et al., 2003), and fires can be used as a management tool in some regions (Cade-Menun et al., 2000; Caldwell et al., 2002). Sometimes fires can have long-term negative effects on belowground systems and soil fertility, and, therefore, ecosystem sustainability (Neary et al., 1999).

Temperatures can range from 50 to >1500°C during fires, and spread rates can vary from 0.5 m wk^–1 in smoldering peat fires to as much as 7 km h^–1 in large, flaming wildfires (Neary et al., 1999). Slow moving fires cause more damage to belowground systems compared to fast moving ones, and recovery from slow moving fires is much less rapid (Neary et al., 1999).

Impacts of fires on mineral soils have been studied extensively (Tomkins et al., 1991; Romanya et al., 1994; Dumontet et al., 1996; Fernández et al., 1997; Cade-Menun et al., 2000; Ketterings and Bingham, 2000; Giardina et al., 2000; Aber and Melillo, 2001; Caldwell et al., 2002; Ivanauskas et al., 2003; Ilstedt et al., 2003) but only a few papers have addressed this issue for peat soils (Smith et al., 2001), and long-term effects of fires on peatlands have not been studied.

The Gavur Lake Peatland of Turkey was drained in the late 1950s, and, thereafter, the area was subject to agricultural production. Peat fires started after the drainage, and the control report in 1967 mentions that 846 ha of peatland was already affected by fires within the first decade of agricultural production in the area (DSI, 1967). For instance, one catastrophic peat fire took place in 1965 and affected the peatland for several months. Periodic peat fires have taken place ever since, and one of the last large-scale fires occurred in 2001. Organic soils burned in 1965 and 2001 represent one of the first and the most recent fire affected soils in the region. This study was performed to determine relatively short- (2001 fire) and long-term (1965 fire) effects of peat fires in the artificially drained Gavur Lake Peatland on some physical and chemical properties of soils.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Study Area
The Gavur Lake Peatland is located in the northern end of the Mozambique Canal-Kahramanmaras Rift Valley, 30 km south of Kahramanmaras City, Turkey. The area, which is surrounded by Miocene aged limestone, and Paleozoic schist and serpentines, formed on Holocene aged lake deposits in a closed watershed on the Antakya-Kahramanmaras Graben, approximately 475 to 481 m above mean sea level (Gurbuz et al., 2003; TIGEM, 1991).

Before 1950, the Gavur Lake Swamp, which was 5586 ha in size, was one of the most important wetlands of Turkey with its rich biodiversity. The swamp provided habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna. Common reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.] and cattail (Typha domingensis Pers.) were the dominant vegetation along with many other aquatic plants such as duckweed (Lemna spp.), pondweed (Potamogeton spp.), naiad (Najas spp.), and bulrush (Schoenoplectus spp.) (Gurbuz et al., 2003). Richness of fish and bird species used to attract fishers and hunters of the region.

The area was drained by the State Hydraulic Works (DSI, abbreviation in Turkish) in the late 1950s using artificial canal networks which flow into Aksu and Ceyhan Rivers. Approximately 54% of the drained land (3023 ha) was distributed among the villagers, 37% (2071 ha) was given to the General Directorate of State Owned Farm Operations (TIGEM, abbreviation in Turkish), and another 9% (492 ha) remained as public land and has been rented for farm operations. Then, the area was subject to agricultural production. Since then, TIGEM has opened new canals, maintained existing canals, and even used pumps to drain the area more effectively.

The herbaceous peat of the area is classified as Limnic Medihemist and Sapric Medihemist (Gundogan et al., 2004; Gurbuz et al., 2003; TIGEM, 1991). The thickness of peat materials changes between 1 and 1.5 m, and an impermeable clay layer is found below the peat material. Mineral soils in the rest of the drained area are Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols, and Mollisols (TIGEM, 1991).

Organic matter oxidation started after the drainage, but the farmers who were not familiar with sustainable management of organic soils accelerated this degradation. Some farmers deliberately set fire to residues following the advice of others who had experienced yield increases in the year after a peat fire. Peat also has been harvested as a fuel by villagers and is being extracted for horticultural purposes. Natural vegetation was destroyed, and peat accumulation ceased after the drainage. The area has been planted with vegetables, sugar beet, cotton, wheat, corn, and soybean. The water table shows ample seasonal fluctuations to such an extent that the area turns into a lake during winter months and the water table falls to a depth of 2 m during summer months.

Once famous for its rich biodiversity, Gavur Lake has continued to take public interest with its catastrophic peat fires since the drainage. The peat fires observed in the area start in the driest months of summer (July or August) and may continue until flooding in winter. Farmers are now more efficient at extinguishing peat fires by isolating burning areas with canals. Organic soils covered 2979 ha (53% of the drained land) before peat fires started in the area, and now unburned peat soils cover approximately 414 ha (Gurbuz et al., 2003). The majority of the peatland is farmed, but it is possible to see patches of common reed in areas with high water table.

Based on 29 yr of data collected from Kahramanmaras Meteorology Station, the mean annual temperature in the area is 16.5°C; the coldest month is January (4.5°C) and the hottest is August (28°C). Mean annual precipitation is 709.8 mm, and 52% (372.1 mm) of it falls between December and February. Almost no precipitation occurs in July and August (1.9 mm). Relative humidity changes from 50 to 70% between summer and winter (Gurbuz et al., 2003). Severe wind erosion when the uppermost few centimeters of soils are dry at early stages of plant development causes some fine materials from burned and unburned soils to be transported out of the study area.

Sampling
The data collection was made in two steps. In May 2004, soil samples were collected from an area of 60 ha which covers soils burned in 1965 and adjacent unburned organic soils along a drainage canal. We collected 96 soil samples from 48 sampling points (35 from burned soils and 13 from unburned soils) based on approximately 100-m grid spacing to a 30-cm depth with 15-cm increments. Soil samples were composites of four cores taken in a random pattern within a 1-m radius of each sampling point using a hand probe (2.5-cm diameter). The burned soils were sampled more intensively to measure any variability caused by fire. Only summer crops are grown in the sampled area due to standing water in winter months. The burned and unburned soils of this area were planted for corn at the sampling time and had similar crop cultivation histories.

In June 2004, soil samples were also taken from an area which experienced a peat fire in 2001. This burned area (approximately 0.6 ha) was surrounded by unburned organic soils. Roughly 40- to 50-cm subsidence was evident in the burned area in comparison with surrounding unburned soils. The burned area of this site had not been farmed since the fire at the time of sampling and was infested by common reed. We took 50 soil samples in the same manner as previously described from 25 sampling points (15 from burned soils and 10 from unburned soils) using approximately 30-m grid spacing.

Burned peat soils are distinguished by their reddened appearance. TIGEM (1991) reported 43 cm as the burning depth for one of the soil profiles studied, but the burning depth depends on the height of the water table at the time of peat fire.

The soil samples were air dried, and crushed to pass a 2-mm sieve. The samples were analyzed for ammonium acetate–extractable K, Ca, Mg, and Na (Helmke and Sparks, 1996; Suarez, 1996), organic carbon by wet oxidation (Nelson and Sommers, 1996), Olsen P (Kuo, 1996), soluble salts (Rhoades, 1996), pH (Thomas, 1996), CaCO₃ (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996), bulk density (Blake and Hartge, 1986), and percent saturation (Gardner, 1986).

Bulk density was determined by using stainless steel soil cores with 5-cm diameter and 5.1-cm length. The cores were pushed into the soil, and soil coming out of each end of the core was carefully trimmed. The cores were dried at 105°C in a forced air oven for 24 h. Bulk density was determined by dividing weight of dry soil (g) to volume of core (100 cm³).

Olsen P was only determined in the 0- to 15-cm soil samples. The concentrations of the measured soil attributes were expressed on a volume basis (µg cm^–3, mg cm^–3, and g cm^–3).

Data Analyses
One way analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple range test were used to test the differences for the measured properties of the soils burned in 1965 (n = 35), burned in 2001 (n = 15), and unburned (n = 23). The differences were accepted as significant if the p value was smaller than 0.05 (p < 0.05). All statistics were performed using SPSS (1998) software.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Table 1 lists the soil properties of the burned and unburned soils for both sample depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm). Analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple range test statistics indicated that there were significant differences in the main soil characteristics between sites, with the exception of Olsen P. Soil bulk density, pH, amounts of soluble salts, CaCO₃, and the concentrations of AAE Ca, K, Mg, and Na were significantly higher for both sampling depths in the burned areas (Table 1). Percent saturation and organic carbon content of soils, however, were significantly lower in the burned areas for both sampling depths (Table 1).

Percent saturation, the amount of water needed to saturate 100 g soil, was significantly higher in the unburned soils than that of the burned soils for both sampling depths (Table 1). Percent saturation values were higher for the soils burned in 1965 compared with the soils burned in 2001 for both sampling depths but the differences were significant for only the first soil sampling depth (Table 1). Poor water holding capacities of burned soils have been reported (Ketterings and Bingham, 2000; Neary et al., 1999).

Peat fire resulted in significant increases in soil pH, and CaCO₃ contents of the soils (Table 1), which directly affect plant uptake or the availability of plant nutrients. The mean pH values of the burned soils were between 0.76 and 1.08 units higher than the unburned soils for both sampling depths, and the soils burned in 2001 had the highest pH values (Table 1). The mean CaCO₃ contents of the burned soils were from 4.07- to 12.79-fold higher than those of the unburned. Although the soils burned in 1965 had higher CaCO₃ contents compared with the soils burned in 2001, the differences were not significant for the second sampling depth. Post-fire pH increases were reported by other researchers (Giardina et al., 2000; DeBano et al., 1998) and were explained by the elevated content of basic cations in the ash, the loss of organic acids during the fire, and the addition of hydroxides and carbonates by the ashes (Fernández et al., 1997; Arocena and Opio, 2003).

The most pronounced effect of the peat fire is leaching as well as volatilization losses of organic C (Smith et al., 2001). In our study, organic C losses ranged from 76 to 91% with peat burning (Table 1). The soils burned in 1965 had higher organic C compared with 2001 burning, probably due to the accumulation of plant residues for four decades in 1965 site. Following a catastrophic stand replacing fire, losses of 75 to 100% of the organic carbon were reported (Neary et al., 1999). Fernández et al. (1997) mentioned that soil heated at 150°C did not show a significant loss of C, whereas at 490°C almost all the organic C disappeared.

The concentrations of ammonium acetate–extractable Ca, Mg, and K were higher in the burned areas in comparison with the unburned soils being highest in the soils burned in 2001 and lowest in the unburned soils. However, there were no significant differences in AAE Mg in samples from the 0- to 15-cm horizon of the two burned soils (Table 1). Ammonium acetate–extractable Na was higher in the burned areas but the differences between the burned sites were not significant. Unlike carbon, potassium (760°C), sodium (880°C), magnesium (1107°C), and calcium (1240°C) require higher temperatures for volatilization (Weast, 1988). These basic cations accumulate in the soil even after severe burns (Ketterings and Bingham, 2000). Higher concentrations of basic cations also caused significant increases in soluble salt concentrations in the burned areas for both sampling depths (Table 1). The soluble salt contents of soils were highest with the 2001 burn, medium with the 1965 burn, and lowest in the unburned soils. Leaching losses and plant uptake of these cations for four decades were probably the main reasons for lower concentrations of AAE cations found in the soils burned in 1965 compared with those soils burned in 2001.

Plant available P levels were not different between the sites (Table 1). Research has shown controversial results regarding post-fire P availability. An increase in available P at low to medium severity fires and a decrease after the most intense fires have been reported (Ketterings and Bingham, 2000). Smith et al. (2001) observed an increase in Ca-Mg bound P and labile inorganic P levels immediately after a peat fire. Giardina et al. (2000) speculated that post burn pH increase is the main reason for decreased availability of P since Ca has high affinity for P in the pH range from neutral to alkaline. The higher values of soil pH and CaCO₃ in the burned areas were probably the reason for decreased availability of phosphorus. Our findings suggest that Ca-P phases controlled P availability in the burned areas, and there was no significant difference in P availability between the sites.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
In this study, relatively short- and long-term effects of peat fires were evaluated by comparison with adjacent unburned organic soils. The differences between the unburned soils and the soils burned in 2001 were considered to reflect the direct effect of peat fires, and the differences between the soils burned in 1965 from both the unburned soils and soils burned in 2001 were considered as long-term effects of peat fires. Generally, the highest or the lowest mean values for any measured soil property occurred in either unburned soils or soils burned in 2001. This suggests that the effect of burning was more apparent in the most recently fire-affected soil (2001). Differences in soil properties between the burned sites were probably due to a combination of plant uptake and loss from leaching to ground water. One of the problems in studying long-term effects of peat fires is the lack of baseline data. Accepting the unburned soils adjacent to the burned sites as baseline data may look simplistic, but this study clearly demonstrates that there is no significant long-term recovery from fire-induced changes in many important soil properties.

Overall, there were low levels of potassium and high salinity in the unburned areas, whereas high pH, high levels of CaCO₃, and high salinity in the burned areas are the factors that may limit crop growth. High pH and CaCO₃ in the burned areas may cause micronutrient deficiencies especially for Fe and Zn. Phosphorus is not a limiting nutrient in the study area.

The degradation of the Gavur Lake Peatland is probably one of the most extreme examples of hydrologically altered peatlands. Approximately 86% of the drained peatland was affected by peat fires, and the remaining unburned sites are under very high risk.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
The authors would like to thank the Kahramanmaras University Research Fund for supporting this project.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 

• Aber, J.D., and J.M. Melillo. 2001. Terrestrial ecosystems. Harcourt Academic Press, Boston.
• Arocena, J.M., and C. Opio. 2003. Prescribed fire-induced changes in properties of sub-boreal forest soils. Geoderma 113:1–16.
• Blake, G.R., and K.H. Hartge. 1986. Bulk density. p. 363–375. In A. Klute (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1. 2nd ed. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Cade-Menun, B.J., S.M. Berch, C.M. Preston, and L.M. Lavkulich. 2000. Phosphorus forms and related soil chemistry of Podzolic soils on northern Vancouver Island. II. The effects of clear cutting and burning. Can. J. For. Res. 30:1726–1741.[CrossRef]
• Caldwell, T.G., D.W. Johnson, W.W. Miller, and R.G. Qualls. 2002. Forest floor carbon and nitrogen losses due to prescription fire. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66:262–267.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• DeBano, L.F., D.G. Neary, and P.F. Ffolliott. 1998. Fire effects on ecosystems. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
• DeBell, D.S., and C.W. Ralston. 1970. Release of nitrogen by burning light forest fuels. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 34:936–938.
• DSI. 1967. Report on fertility status of the soils in the artificially drained Gavur Lake. (In Turkish.) State Hydraulic Works (DSI) Surveying and Planning Department, Ankara, Turkey.
• Dumontet, S., H. Dinel, and A. Scopa. 1996. Post-fire soil microbial biomass and nutrient content of a pin forest soil from a dunal Mediterranean environment. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28:1467–1475.[CrossRef]
• Fernández, I., A. Cabaneiro, and T. Carballas. 1997. Organic matter changes immediately after a wildfire in an Atlantic forest soil comparison with laboratory soil heating. Soil Biol. Biochem. 29:1–11.
• Gardner, W.H. 1986. Water content. p. 493–544. In A. Klute (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1. 2nd ed. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Giardina, C.P., R.L. Sanford, Jr., and I.C. Døckersmith. 2000. Changes in soil phosphorus and nitrogen during slash-and-burn clearing of a dry tropical forest. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:399–405.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• Gundogan, R., B. Acemioglu, and M.H. Alma. 2004. Copper (II) adsorption from aqueous solution by herbaceous peat. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 269:303–309.[Medline]
• Gurbuz, M., H. Korkmaz, R. Gundogan, and M. Digrak. 2003. Geographic properties and rehabilitation of Gavur Lake Wetland. Publ. 1. (In Turkish.) Governorship of Kahramanmaras, Turkey.
• Helmke, P.A., and D.L. Sparks. 1996. Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. p. 551–575. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Ilstedt, U., R. Giesler, A. Nordgren, and A. Malmer. 2003. Changes in soil chemical and microbial properties after a wildfire in a tropical rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35:1071–1078.[CrossRef]
• Ivanauskas, N.M., R. Monteiro, and R.R. Rodrigues. 2003. Alterations following a fire in a forest community of Alto Rio Xingu. For. Ecol. Manage. 184:239–250.[CrossRef]
• Jensen, M., A. Michelsen, and M. Gashaw. 2001. Responses in plant, soil inorganic and microbial nutrient pools to experimental fire, ash and biomass addition in a woodland savanna. Oecologia 128:85–93.[CrossRef]
• Ketterings, Q.M., and J.M. Bingham. 2000. Soil color as an indicator of slash-and-burn severity and soil fertility in Sumatra, Indonesia. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:1826–1833.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• Kuo, S. 1996. Phosphorus. p. 869–921. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Laubhan, M.K. 1995. Effects of prescribed fire on moist-soil vegetation and soil macronutrients. Peatlands 15:159–166.
• Loeppert, R.H., and D.L. Suarez. 1996. Carbonate and gypsum. p. 437–475. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Menaut, J.C., L. Abbadie, and P.M. Vitousek. 1993. Nutrient and organic matter dynamics in tropical ecosystems. p. 215–231. In P.J. Crutzen and J.G. Goldhammer (ed.) Fire in the environment: The ecological, atmospheric, and climatic importance of fires. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
• Neary, D.G., C.C. Klopatek, L.F. DeBano, and P.F. Ffolliott. 1999. Fire effects on belowground sustainability: A review and synthesis. For. Ecol. Manage. 122:51–71.[CrossRef]
• Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommers. 1996. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. p. 961–1011. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Raison, R.J., P.K. Khanna, and P.V. Woods. 1985. Mechanisms of elemental transfer to the atmosphere during vegetation fires. Can. J. For. Res. 15:132–140.
• Rhoades, J.D. 1996. Salinity: Electrical conductivity and total dissolved gasses. p. 417–437. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Romanya, J., P.K. Khanna, and R.J. Raison. 1994. Effects of slash burning on soil phosphorus fractions and sorption and desorption of phosphorus. For. Ecol. Manage. 65:89–103.
• Smith, S.M., S. Newman, P.B. Garrett, and J.A. Leeds. 2001. Differential effects of surface and peat fire on soil constituents in a degraded peatland of the northern Florida Everglades. J. Environ. Qual. 30:1998–2005.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• SPSS. 1998. Systat 8.0 for Windows. SPSS, Chicago.
• Suarez, D.L. 1996. Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. p. 575–603. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Thomas, G.W. 1996. Soil pH and acidity. p. 475–491. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
• TIGEM. 1991. Soil survey of Kahramanmaras district of general directorate of state owned farm operations. (In Turkish.) Publ. 11. TIGEM, Ankara, Turkey.
• Tomkins, I.B., J.D. Kellas, K.G. Tolhurst, and D.A. Oswin. 1991. Effects of fire intensity on soil chemistry in a eucalypt forest. Aust. J. Soil Res. 29:25–47.
• Weast, R.C. 1988. Handbook of chemistry and physics. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Agricola Articles by Dikici, H. Articles by Yilmaz, C. H. Related Collections Soil Fertility and Productivity Ecosystem Management Fire