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TECHNICAL REPORTS

Waste Management

Effect of Manure Application Timing, Crop, and Soil Type on Nitrate Leaching

^a Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
^b University of Lome, Ecole Superieure d'Agronomie, B.P. 1515 Lome, Togo

^* Corresponding author (hmv1{at}cornell.edu)

Received for publication May 1, 2005.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION ANIMAL MANURE AND NITROGEN... MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Timing of manure application affects N leaching. This 3-yr study quantified N losses from liquid manure application on two soils, a Muskellunge clay loam and a Stafford loamy sand, as affected by cropping system and timing of application. Dairy manure was applied at an annual rate of 93 800 L ha^–1 on replicated drained plots under continuous maize (Zea mays L.) in early fall, late fall, early spring, and as a split application in early and late spring. Variable rates of supplemental sidedress N fertilizer were applied as needed. Manure was applied on orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) in split applications in early fall and late spring, and early and late spring, with supplemental N fertilizer topdressed as NH₄NO₃ in early spring at 75 kg N ha^–1. Drain water was sampled at least weekly when lines were flowing. Three-year FWM (flow-weighted mean) NO₃–N concentrations on loamy sand soil averaged 2.5 times higher (12.7 mg L^–1) than those on clay loam plots (5.2 mg L^–1), and those for fall applications on maize-cropped land averaged >10 mg L^–1 on the clay loam and >20 mg L^–1 on the loamy sand. Nitrate–N concentrations among application seasons followed the pattern early fall > late fall > early spring = early + late spring. For grass, average NO₃–N concentrations from manure application remained well below 10 mg L^–1. Fall manure applications on maize show high NO₃–N leaching risks, especially on sandy soils, and manure applications on grass pose minimal leaching concern.

Abbreviations: FWM, flow-weighted mean • MCL, maximum contaminant level • PSNT, pre-sidedress nitrate test

	INTRODUCTION

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ELEVATED NO₃ levels in surface and ground water are a major environmental concern, and agricultural sources are believed to be a major contributor. A survey by Mueller et al. (1995) found 1% of community wells and 9% of rural domestic wells had NO₃–N concentrations above the 10 mg L^–1 MCL (maximum contaminant level). The fraction of contaminated wells was as high as 26% in areas with land use under intensive agriculture. In the Northeast, ground water NO₃–N contamination typically appears in localized areas and can often be related to intensive agricultural or urban land uses (Poe et al., 1998). Many estuaries in the USA have concerns with excessive N levels (Economic Research Service, 1997), and in the northeastern USA, about 60% of estuarine areas show a high level of eutrophication (USEPA, 2001). Nitrate pollution poses significant risks to human health through contamination of ground water and drinking water (Townsend et al., 2003) and, in addition, the resulting eutrophication can result in changes in ecological functioning and food webs (National Research Council, 2000).

A number of studies quantified NO₃–N leaching potential under different crops (e.g., Robbins and Carter, 1980; Bergstrom, 1987; Owens, 1990; Randall et al., 1997; Eriksen et al., 2004). In general, they found the highest NO₃–N levels under maize, intermediate levels under less-fertilized annual crops (e.g., soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and wheat [Triticum aestivum L.]), and lowest levels under perennial crops (e.g., alfalfa [Medicago sativa L.] and grasses). In fact, NO₃–N levels under the latter crops were generally well below the MCL. Besides changes in NO₃–N leaching losses, soil hydrologic patterns also varied among crops. Randall et al. (1997) found drainage from row-crop systems to exceed that from perennial crops by 1.1 to 5.3 times, primarily as a result of differences in the timing of crop water uptake and rooting depths. Bergstrom (1987) similarly found higher drainage under barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) than fescue (Festuca arundinacea L.) and alfalfa. Therefore, the process of NO₃ leaching under different crops involves a complex interaction among soil hydrology, crop water and nutrient uptake, and management practices. The use of perennial crops is often suggested as an alternative to row crops when NO₃ leaching is of great concern (e.g., Schertz and Miller, 1972; Meek et al., 1994; Randall et al., 1997; Yiridoe et al., 1997).

	ANIMAL MANURE AND NITROGEN LOSSES

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Manure N includes a somewhat unstable component as urea–NH₄^– in the liquid portion and a relatively stable organic N fraction in the feces (Klausner et al., 1994). If manure is surface applied and not incorporated, the urea NH₄ can convert to NH₃ as the pH increases and the manure begins to dry. It may then be lost by volatilization, depending on ambient conditions (Lauer et al., 1976). If the manure is effectively incorporated, most of the urea and NH₄ are converted to NO₃, thereby making it plant available or subject to leaching or denitrification losses. The organic N fraction of manure mineralizes and becomes gradually plant available, typically represented by a decay series (Pratt et al., 1973; Magdoff, 1978; Klausner et al., 1994); however, it is recognized that the rate of N mineralization is strongly affected by variations in soil, weather, manure composition, and management factors (Barbarika et al., 1985; Douglas and Magdoff, 1991; Bernal and Kirchmann, 1992; Klausner et al., 1994; Jackson and Smith, 1997). Estimates for mineralization of the organic manure N fraction are lower for manure applied to poorly drained soil or left on the surface (compared with manure incorporated on well-drained soil). Magdoff (1978) estimated that manure N mineralization rates on a poorly drained clay were about half those on a well-drained loam.

In addition to N plant availability, timing of manure application may affect potential environmental losses. Paul and Zebarth (1997) evaluated leaching losses from fall-applied dairy cattle slurry on two soil types in coastal British Columbia (a poorly drained coarse-textured and a well-drained medium-textured soil) and determined them to average 40 kg ha^–1 more than the no-manure treatment. Denitrification accounted for only 17% of the total NO₃ losses, and therefore was less significant than leaching. Smith and Chambers (1993) in England also determined that the application of high-N manures in the fall tends to result in excessive NO₃ leaching losses and recommend against application during the period September to December. Early spring manure application may result in NO₃ release in advance of crop uptake (Durieux et al., 1995), and may also result in leaching losses. Similarly, timing within seasons may have significant impacts on leaching potential. A late fall application, when soil temperatures have decreased, may result in N release patterns different from early fall application, and more similar to spring application. For example, Gangbazo et al. (1995) did not detect increased NO₃ leaching from late-fall-applied manure compared with a check treatment.

Nitrogen leaching losses from organic sources may also vary among cropping systems. Nonleguminous cold-season perennial hay crops have higher N demands (Klausner, 1997), have longer active growth periods, and require different manure application schedules than maize. In addition, manure applied on grass is typically not incorporated, thereby reducing the availability of the urea-N fraction. As a result, despite the high uptake potential, the recovery of manure N has generally been quite low, in the range of 17 to 34% (Meisinger and Jokela, 2000). Kaffka and Kanneganti (1996) measured greater crop response of orchardgrass to manure application in a year with abundant rainfall (with reported N recoveries as high as 60%) than in a dry year. The timing of such precipitation relative to manure application appears to be critical, as 40 to 60% of the total NH₃ losses may occur in the first few hours, although this may be greatly affected by the application method (Meisinger and Jokela, 2000).

It is apparent that the timing of application of organic sources of N relative to soil conditions (especially temperature and moisture), crop uptake potential, and -water percolation is an important factor in determining leaching potential and crop availability. Also, the processes governing leaching are strongly affected by soil type. With increased capability for liquid manure storage in the northeast USA, year-round spreading of fresh, aerobic manure is substituted with the application of anaerobically treated liquid manure during two primary time windows—fall and early spring. The objective of this study was to quantify tile drainage NO₃–N concentrations from manure-derived and fertilizer N under maize and orchardgrass grown on clay loam and loamy sand soils as affected by the diverse environmental conditions associated with differential timing of application.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Lysimeter Plots
A field experiment was conducted at the Cornell University Research Farm in Willsboro, NY (44°22' N, 73°26' W). Nutrient transport experiments were conducted on two soil types: a glacio-lacustrine Muskellunge clay loam (fine, mixed, frigid Aeric Epiaqualf), and a Stafford loamy fine sand (mixed, mesic typic Psammaquent) that has formed in outwash sand but is underlain by glacio-lacustrine clay at depths ranging from 0.6 to 1.5 m. For each soil type, 16 lysimeter plots in a four-by-four pattern (Fig. 1) were established in 1987 and 1992 for the clay loam and loamy sand sites, respectively. The plots are surrounded by a 0.8-mm-thick impermeable PVC (polyvinyl chloride) geomembrane to a depth of 1.8 m to make them hydrologically independent, as described in further detail by Sogbedji et al. (2000). A central drain line, installed at the 0.9-m depth, of each pair of plots is joined outside the plot boundaries at an access hole midway between the two plots, allowing sampling of drainage water, as discussed in further detail by van Es et al. (2004).

View larger version (55K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Plot layout and experimental design for manure and N fertilizer application study on the clay loam site. The loamy sand site has an identical experiment design, but plots are 14 by 14 m and only have a single central drain in each plot.

Physical and chemical characteristics of the soil material in the plots are presented in Table 1. The clay plots contain some sand-size material in the 0- to 35-cm depth, but high clay content in the subsoil. The loamy sand site shows low clay content in the subsurface layer and as high as 727 g kg^–1 at 85-cm depth. Textural fractions are intermediate in the 50- to 80-cm depth range, but this mostly reflects varying depths of the sharp interface between the outwash sand and the underlying glacio-lacustrine clay. Water retention and K_sat (hydraulic conductivity) data generally show higher and lower values, respectively, based on clay content (Table 1). Initial soil N contents were measured immediately before manure application on 29 Sept. 1997, and showed higher residual N levels in maize than grass plots. Previous research efforts have demonstrated that the plots function well for nutrient leaching studies and allow considerable precision in detecting subtle tracer and N fertilizer treatment effects (van Es et al., 1991; Sogbedji et al., 2000). Previous studies showed that the clay loam plots experience longer periods of saturation in the surface horizon than the loamy sand plots (van Es et al., 2005) and have higher N losses through denitrification (Sogbedji et al., 2001a, 2001b), and that the loamy sand plots show higher NO₃–N leaching losses (Sogbedji et al., 2000).

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2 Flow-weighted mean drain outflow NO3–N concentrations and precipitation during the 3-yr study for the clay loam site in maize. Arrows indicate dates of manure application.

Grass plots also received 93 800 L ha^–1 of liquid manure in two equal applications of 46 900 L ha^–1. Manure applied to grass was not incorporated, but was left on the soil surface. One set of three plots on each site (Fig. 1) received manure applications in the early spring and late spring (after the first cutting; Table 2). Another set received manure after the first cutting (late spring) and after the third cutting (early fall). Grass plots that received manure also had supplemental N fertilizer topdressed as NH₄NO₃ in early spring at a rate of 75 kg N ha^–1 to meet the large crop N demands in the first growth cycle. Two grass plots at each site did not receive any manure, but were topdressed thrice each year (in early spring at a rate of 150 kg N ha^–1, and after the first and second cuts at a rate of 75 kg N ha^–1 for a total of 300 kg N ha^–1; Fig. 1, Table 2). All grass plots also received 80 kg ha^–1 of K on 16 Apr. 1999. Maize and grass were managed according to Cornell-recommended guidelines for pest control and nutrients (Cornell Cooperative Extension, 1997).

Water Analyses
Precipitation data were collected daily at an automated weather station, which is operated under the auspices of the Northeast Regional Climate Center at Cornell University, located within a 1-km distance of the research sites on the experimental farm. Drain effluent was manually sampled using polyethylene bottles during periods of drain discharge, generally in the spring, early summer, and fall. Water samples were obtained at least weekly during flow periods, more often during periods following manure applications. Flow rates were determined at the time of sampling based on the time needed for the sample container to fill. All water samples were immediately frozen after sampling. Nitrate-N content was determined for each sample using an autoanalyzer at the Cornell University Nutrient Analysis Laboratory (Cornell Nutrient Analysis Laboratories, 1987, 1989).

The FWM NO₃–N concentrations were computed for seasonal drain flow periods as well as the entire 3-yr span of the study by multiplying the measured NO₃–N concentrations by the determined drain discharge rates, and averaging for the time period. Based on drain discharge patterns, seasonal periods were defined as: Winter 1997–1998 (30 Sept. 1997–20 Apr. 1998), growing season 1998 (21 Apr.–3 Sept. 1998), winter 1998–1999 (4 Sept. 1998–3 Apr. 1999), growing season 1999 (4 Apr.–8 Sept. 1999), winter 1999–2000 (9 Sept. 1999–22 Apr. 2000), and growing season 2000 (23 Apr.–25 Sept. 2000). The 3-yr average was also based on FWMs.

Crop Yield
Maize silage yields were determined from two 6-m rows in each plot on 17 Sept. 1998, 20 Sept. 1999, and 25 Sept. 2000. Crop water contents were determined through oven drying at 65°C, and maize silage yields were adjusted to 0.65 kg kg^–1 water contents. Orchardgrass was cut and removed three times during each growing season based on forage quality considerations. Harvest dates were 26 May, 14 July, and 4 September in 1998; 10 June, 20 July, and 20 September in 1999; and 21 June and 20 July in 2000. Grass yield data were not collected.

Statistical analyses were performed with SAS software (SAS Institute, 1999), using the MIXED procedure and assuming that manure application timing and crop effects are fixed, and all other effects (site, season, and year) are random.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Manure and Fertilizer Nitrogen Data
Manure analyses showed that its nutrient and solid matter contents were somewhat variable throughout the study period, but still allow for valid comparison of the effects of timing of application (Table 2). Solid contents ranged from 48 to 96 g L^–1, manure inorganic and organic N contents ranged from 525 to 921 mg L^–1 (all but one application time between 663 and 921 mg L^–1) and 990 to 1455 mg L^–1, respectively. Average total N content of manure was 2 g L^–1, of which approximately 40% was inorganic, while the remainder was in the organic fraction. The 46 900 and 93 800 L ha^–1 applications resulted in average applications of approximately 96 and 191 kg ha^–1 of total N, respectively. The higher N contents were generally associated with the spring applications, implying that, given equal liquid manure application volumes, the spring applications involved higher N concentrations. This was compensated by lower PSNT-based N fertilizer rates than the fall application times, and the manure N applications therefore represented a real-world scenario. Annual average fertilizer N application was 105 kg ha^–1 for the early fall and late fall treatments, 89 kg ha^–1 for the early spring treatment and 44 kg ha^–1 for the early + late spring, which did not receive sidedress N fertilizer. The manure and fertilizer N applications resulted in average N applications ranging from 245 to 288 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 (Table 2). Three-year total N applications on maize were 857, 856, 864, and 734 kg ha^–1 for early fall, late fall, early spring, and early + late spring treatments, respectively. For the grass plots, annual N applications from manure and fertilizer ranged from 240 to 294 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 and 3-yr averages were 268 and 277 kg N ha^–1 yr^–1 for the early fall + late spring and early + late spring treatments, respectively.

Precipitation patterns varied considerably among the seasonal periods (Table 3, bottom row). Drain lines generally flowed during the spring and early summer, followed by a dry period in the mid and late summer. Flow resumed in the fall until soil frost, when drain flow ceased until spring soil melt. The winter 1997–1998 period following the first manure applications experienced high precipitation (426 mm), providing an immediate transport mechanism for the applied nutrients. The 1998 growing season had 347 mm of precipitation, close to the average for this site (van Es et al., 2005). The winter 1998–1999 period had 249 mm of precipitation and was followed by a very dry 1999 growing season with only 123 mm of rain (one-third of normal). There was no drain flow observed during this period. High precipitation during fall 1999 (especially) and the following winter generated renewed drain flow. The 2000 growing season had above-normal precipitation (396 mm).

Soil Type and Seasonality
Seasonal FWM NO₃–N concentrations were consistently higher for the loamy sand than the clay loam soil, with 3-yr FWM concentrations, averaged across cropping systems and times of manure application, of 10.3 and 5.9 mg L^–1, respectively (Table 3). This indicates that NO₃–N leaching concerns are more acute for the loamy sand soil than the clay loam soil due to higher hydraulic conductivity and lower retentivity (Table 1), similar to conclusions by Sogbedji et al. (2000), Geleta et al. (1994), and Korsaeth et al. (2003). Higher concentrations may also in part be the result of greater NO₃–N levels due to a higher manure mineralization potential on well-drained soils (Magdoff, 1978), and lower denitrification potential (Sogbedji et al., 2001a, 2001b), which is supported by the patterns of NO₃–N concentrations at the two sites: these concentrations, especially under maize on the loamy sand plots showed higher peak levels in periods following manure applications (Fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5). On a seasonal basis, the magnitude of the differences in NO₃–N concentrations between the clay loam and the loamy sand soils varied with precipitation. The FWM NO₃–N concentrations on the loamy sand exceeded those on the clay loam by 53 and 63% (Table 3) in the winter 1997–1998 and growing season 2000 periods, respectively, with above-normal precipitation (426 and 396 mm, respectively). During the growing season 1998, winter 1998–1999, and winter 1999–2000 periods, the precipitation was 347, 249, and 267 mm, respectively, and the associated NO₃–N concentrations on the loamy sand soil were 91, 98, and 250% higher, respectively, than concentrations on the clay loam. The very high NO₃–N levels measured during fall and winter 1999–2000 appear to be the result of high residual soil N levels as a result of a very dry 1999 growing season with limited crop N uptake. McIsaac et al. (2001) also identified higher NO₃ discharges in river basins following dry growing seasons. In general, this suggests that differences in NO₃–N concentrations between the two soil types resulted not only from differences in drainage, manure mineralization, and denitrification potentials, but also from precipitation patterns.

View larger version (27K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3 Flow-weighted mean drain outflow NO3–N concentrations and precipitation during the 3-yr study for the clay loam site in grass. Arrows indicate dates of manure application.

View larger version (33K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4 Flow-weighted mean drain outflow NO3–N concentrations and precipitation during the 3-yr study for the loamy sand site in maize. Arrows indicate dates of manure application.

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5 Flow-weighted mean drain outflow NO3–N concentrations and precipitation during the 3-yr study for the loamy sand site in grass. Arrows indicate dates of manure application.

Although NO₃–N concentrations remained low under grass during most of the study period, they spiked to high levels during the winter 1999–2000 period following a dry 1999 growing season. This may in part be explained by the experimental protocol where fertilizer applications after second cut were maintained despite the limited accumulated growth of the orchardgrass. Under a real-world scenario, N management could have been adjusted to prevent possible high residual soil N levels at the end of the growing season.

Timing of Manure Application
Nitrate-N concentrations under maize followed a consistent pattern related to timing of manure application of early fall > late fall > early spring = early + late spring for both soil types (Table 3). Early fall applications resulted in FWM NO₃–N concentrations of 23.4 and 15.4 mg L^–1 for loamy sand and clay loam, respectively, which for both soils is about 4 mg L^–1 higher than those for the late fall application (19.3 and 11.8 mg L^–1, respectively). Since no crop N uptake occurred during the intervening period, the reduced N losses are probably associated with lower soil temperatures and N mineralization–nitrification rates after the late fall applications. In all cases, however, fall manure application resulted in NO₃–N concentrations above the USEPA MCL of 10 mg L^–1, with the greatest concern being associated with the coarse-textured soil. Elevated NO₃–N concentrations from fall applications on maize plots were immediately measurable in shallow ground water, especially for the early fall applications (Table 3, Fig. 2 and 4).

Spring applications resulted in significantly lower NO₃–N concentrations than fall applications for all seasons (Table 3), with 3-yr FWM concentrations averaging 7.0 and 9.1 mg L^–1 lower for the clay loam and loamy sand soils, respectively. The significantly higher N leaching risk associated with fall applications is presumably due to a higher fraction of N released from fall-applied manure being subject to environmental losses as a result of crop N uptake being out of sync with N release. Additionally, greater environmental N losses from fall applications (from both leaching and denitrification) necessitate additional N fertilizer applications (Table 2) during the following spring, resulting in higher total N inputs.

Unlike for the fall additions, a delay in manure application in the spring (early spring vs. early + late spring) did not result in reduced N leaching losses (Table 3). This is presumably due to the slow N mineralization in the early growing season (Durieux et al., 1995), which is generally timely in terms of maize N uptake patterns. Delaying part of the manure application to the late spring therefore does not result in reduced leaching losses. Nevertheless, the optimization of the timing of manure application during the spring still resulted in NO₃–N concentrations >10 mg L^–1 for maize application on the loamy sand soil (average of 12.2 mg L^–1), and therefore still poses some environmental concern. These results generally corroborate research findings by Gupta et al. (2004), who reported 40% higher NO₃–N leaching losses from fall application than winter application of manure, and Smith and Chambers (1993), who concluded that manure should not be applied during the period September to December to decrease NO₃–N leaching losses. Our results agree also with Hansen et al. (2004), who recommended that manure should be applied in spring to achieve the optimum use of N in the manure.

Nitrate-N concentrations on grass were generally similar for the early fall + late spring and early + late spring treatments, and in both cases remained well below the level of concern. Leaching concentrations were lower for the manure application treatments than for the fertilizer-only treatment, although still remaining well below 10 mg L^–1, even on the loamy sand. This can be attributed to the fact that the total N application was higher under the fertilizer-only treatment, and that larger fractions of the manure N may have been lost through NH₃ volatilization after surface application. Elevated NO₃–N concentrations under grass were only measured after an unusually dry growing season (1999), and the results are biased by the fact that the fertilization regime was rigidly maintained, as discussed above.

Maize Silage Yield
Maize silage yields were consistently higher for the loamy sand than the clay loam soil (Table 4). This agrees with the trend of silage yield data reported by Sogbedji et al. (2000) and indicates that the loamy sand may have a higher yield potential than the clay loam soil. The dryness of the 1999 growing season resulted in considerable yield depression on both soil types compared with yields of the 1998 and 2000 growing seasons. The yields were highest in the 2000 growing season (Table 4), which also had the highest precipitation (Table 3). On the clay loam soil, yields were similar for the early fall, early spring and early spring + late spring treatments, and higher for the late fall treatment in 1998, but were similar for all treatments in 1999. The pattern of the 2000 yields was late fall > early fall > early spring = early spring + late spring. The yield depression for the spring applications suggests that the timing of manure application under these treatments did not provide sufficient N for the maize crop under the weather (especially precipitation) conditions of the 2000 growing season. The above-normal precipitation (396 mm) in the 2000 growing season together with the spring-applied manure presumably resulted in considerable losses of the plant-available N through slow mineralization, high denitrification, or both. On the loamy sand soil, silage yields were not responsive to timing of manure application (Table 4). In each of the 3 yr (except 1998, which showed a higher yield for the early spring + late spring treatment), yields were consistently similar for the four manure timing-of-application treatments. Similarly, combined yield data for the clay loam and the loamy sand soils show that maize silage yield was minimally affected by timing of manure application. This indicates that each of the treatments generally resulted in equivalent crop N nutrition, and variations in leaching losses were mainly associated with different N loss potentials that are inherent with the management practice.

	CONCLUSIONS

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	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
The authors acknowledge the assistance of Bill Jokela (University of Vermont), Larry Geohring, Michael David, Delvin Meseck, Michael LaDuke, and Robert Lucey in the execution of this study, and funding support from the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program.

	REFERENCES

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