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Published in J. Environ. Qual. 33:358-366 (2004).
© ASA, CSSA, SSSA
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA

TECHNICAL REPORTS

Waste Management

Runoff Losses of Phosphorus and Nitrogen Imported in Sod or Composted Manure for Turf Establishment

D. M. Vietor*,a, T. L. Provina, R. H. Whitea and C. L. Munsterb

a Soil and Crop Sciences Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
b Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

* Corresponding author (dvietor{at}tamu.edu).

Received for publication January 9, 2003.

   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Nutrient loading on impaired watersheds can be reduced through export of sod grown with manure and export of composted manure for turf production on other watersheds. Effects of the sod and manure exports on receiving watersheds were evaluated through monitoring of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) and N concentrations and losses in runoff from establishing turf. Three replications of seven treatments were established on an 8.5% slope of a Booneville soil (loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive Pachic Argicryolls). Three treatments comprised imported 'Tifway' bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x C. transvaalensis Burtt-Davy) sod grown with composted dairy manure (382 or 191 kg P ha–1) or fertilizer (50 kg P ha–1). Three treatments were sprigged with Tifway and top-dressed with either composted manure (92 or 184 kg P ha–1) or fertilizer (100 kg P ha–1). The control was established bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. var. Guymon]. During eight fall rain events, mean TDP concentration in runoff (7.8 mg L–1) from sprigged Tifway top-dressed with manure (84 kg P ha–1) was 1.6 times greater than sod imported with 129 kg manure P ha–1. During the first fall event, mass losses of TDP (232 mg m–2) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) (317 mg m–2) from sprigged treatments top-dressed with manure or fertilizer were nearly three times greater than manure-grown sod. Percentages of manure P lost as TDP in runoff from imported sod were 33% of percentages lost from sprigged treatments top-dressed with manure. Sod grown with manure P rates of 190 kg P ha–1 can be imported without increasing runoff losses of TDP compared with conventional fertilization of establishing turfgrass.

Abbreviations: PP, particulate phosphorus • TDP, total dissolved phosphorus • TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
REGULATIONS FOR TOTAL MAXIMUM DAILY LOADS (TMDLs) can include mandates for reduced P loading on farms and watersheds. Export of manure P from surplus to deficit areas is a logical means for reducing P loading of water bodies (Sharpley et al., 2000). Yet, high transportation costs constrain manure export from impaired watersheds (Daniel et al., 1998). On the Upper North Bosque River watershed in Texas transport of manure to composting facilities and of composted manure to other watersheds is subsidized by state and federal funds. Amounts of manure hauled and composted during the first 18 mo of this 3-yr subsidy program were 150% of the projected program goal (Texas State Soil Water Conservation Board, 2002). The limited duration of subsidy programs and uncertain long-term markets for composted manure raise questions about the sustainability of direct exports of P in composted manure over long distances.

The export of manure sources of P through turfgrass sod grown with manure and as composted manure for turfgrass production on other watersheds are potential alternatives to subsidized transport of composted manure to public-works projects (Vietor et al., 2002). The relatively large economic value of turfgrass sod (Lard et al., 1996) could pay the costs of manure export from dairies and impaired watersheds without subsidies. In addition, the large economic value of turf on developing urban landscapes could balance hauling costs and justify imports of composted manure for turf establishment.

If turfgrass is produced near concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), sod harvests can remove excess manure P originating from feed imports (Bacon et al., 1990; Sharpley and Tunney, 2000). Initial field studies demonstrated a single sod harvest removed and exported 46 to 77% of manure P applied during production of three turf species (Vietor et al., 2002). Estimates for an impaired watershed indicate that 250 ha of turfgrass sod grown with composted manure can export 50000 kg of manure P annually.

Previous studies indicated that dense plant populations typical of turfgrass could minimize runoff losses of sediment and nutrients from landscapes on which manure-grown sod is imported (Gross et al., 1990, 1991). In contrast, a total of 7.1 kg of dissolved P ha–1 was lost in runoff during eight rain events after surface applications of composted dairy manure equal to 100 kg P ha–1 on an 8.5% slope of bermudagrass turf (Gaudreau et al., 2002). The effect of nutrient export and TMDL implementation plans, including export of manure nutrients through and for turfgrass sod production, need to be evaluated for importing as well as exporting watersheds.

This research was designed to evaluate runoff losses of P and N imported as manure-grown sod or composted dairy manure for turf establishment. The specific objectives were to (i) quantify and compare nutrient losses in runoff during turf establishment between imported sod and sprigged bermudagrass turf top-dressed with composted manure or fertilizer and (ii) evaluate the relationship between P concentrations in soil and P runoff losses.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Experimental Design
A randomized complete block design comprised three replications of seven treatments, including controls. Three treatments were sod transplanted from Tifway bermudagrass plots grown with manure or fertilizer P sources (Table 1). Manure-grown Tifway sod was produced with large (382 kg P ha–1) (HManSod) or moderate (191 kg P ha–1) (MManSod) manure rates during spring and summer and harvested and imported in early October. Sod produced with inorganic fertilizer P (FertSod) was imported 15 d later after Runoff Event 2. Three sprigged treatments comprised surface applications of two rates of composted manure and one of fertilizer P after sprigs of Tifway bermudagrass were planted (Table 1). The P rates applied as composted dairy manure (HManSpg and LManSpg) or fertilizer (FertSpg) were split between an initial application after planting during early October 2000 and a second date during April 2001. A 3-yr-old sod of common bermudagrass turf provided a control within each replication.


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  		Table 1. Summary of experimental design comprising three replications of six treatments and a control for evaluation of runoff losses of P and N during Tifway bermudagrass establishment on an 8.5% slope. Manure or inorganic P and N were provided through import in transplanted sod or in surface applications of composted dairy manure or fertilizer on sprigged turf.

 
Treatments were installed on an 8.5% slope constructed from a Booneville fine sandy loam soil at the Texas A&M University Turfgrass Field Laboratory during October 2000. Irrigation was managed to balance evapotranspiration during establishment. Plot dimensions were 4 x 1.5 m. Sheet metal (width = 12.5 cm, thickness = 1.9 mm) was inserted 5 cm into soil around the perimeter of each plot to contain runoff. Runoff was collected through an H-flume at the base of each plot into an uncovered 311-L tank.

Ammonium nitrate (34–0–0) fertilizer (50 kg N ha–1) was applied with triple super phosphate fertilizer (0–46–0) on the sprigged fertilizer treatment (FertSpg) during early October. In addition, the same rate and form of fertilizer N was applied to all treatments after the first two rain events during fall 2000 and to imported sod treatments during spring 2001 (Table 1). A malfunction of the irrigation system washed away treatments applied during March 2001. The mean soil-test P concentration of treatments after the irrigation malfunction was similar to those measured after the last runoff event during the previous fall period. The surface applications of manure and fertilizer were repeated at the specified rates during April 2001 (Table 1).

Sampling and Analysis
Composted dairy manure was sampled and analyzed before application on sprigged treatments according to a modified Kjeldahl method (Parkinson and Allen, 1975). Total P and N concentrations in composted manure averaged 2.6 and 4.2 g kg–1, respectively. Rates of total P applied in composted dairy manure were two times those applied as inorganic fertilizer to compensate for smaller proportions of soluble P in manure. Rates of P applied as inorganic fertilizer maintained or increased extractable soil-test P above an agronomic threshold for Texas (Sharpley and Tunney, 2000). Fertilizer raised soil-test P to levels observed in 71% of soil samples submitted from an urbanizing county east of the Upper North Bosque River watershed (T.L. Provin, unpublished data, 2000).

Plots were clipped 3.8 cm above the soil when turf height reached 5 to 7.5 cm. The first of three clipping dates occurred in May, 20 d after manure and fertilizer applications. Clippings were collected in a mower bag, weighed, and subsampled. Subsamples were weighed before and after drying and ground. Plant uptake of P and N was quantified through digestion and analysis of subsamples (Feagley et al., 1994; McGeehan and Naylor, 1988).

Sod was harvested at a 2.5-cm depth and sampled during transplanting to quantify P and N imports on treatments. Plant parts were washed from soil of sod samples. Plant and soil components were dried, weighed, ground, and analyzed similar to clippings (Vietor et al., 2002). Nutrient amounts in soil and plant components of sod were summed to compute rates of total P and N imported with sod (Table 1).

Daily rain amounts were recorded for natural events at a monitoring station on-site. Runoff volume in collection tanks was measured after rain events in which water depth in tanks exceeded rain depth for all treatments during fall 2000 and spring 2001. Rain depth was subtracted from runoff depths. Runoff was sampled after nine runoff events during fall and four runoff events following manure or fertilizer applications during spring. After each runoff event, 500 mL was sampled during mixing of tank volumes for each plot. Samples were refrigerated immediately and stored at 5°C before analysis. Runoff samples were typically filtered within 72 h after removal from tanks.

The particulate fraction (>1.4 µm) of the entire 500 mL of sample volume was collected on a glass microfiber filter, dried, and weighed. The filtrate and glass filter disk with sediment were each digested (Parkinson and Allen, 1975). Concentrations of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) (<1.4 µm) and total particulate phosphorus (PP) (Haygarth and Sharpley, 2000) in respective digests were analyzed through inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES). The TKN in digests and the NO3–N of the filtrate were measured colorimetrically (Dorich and Nelson, 1983; Isaac and Jones, 1970) and through cadmium reduction in an autoanalyzer (Dorich and Nelson, 1984). When TKN concentrations in filtrate were small (<10 mg L–1), TDP and NO3–N concentrations in filtrate were analyzed through ICP–OES and the autoanalyzer, respectively, without digestion. Concentrations in filtrate were adjusted to account for rainfall dilution of runoff collected in the uncovered tanks of plots.

Soil of each plot was sampled and analyzed before P and N imports and after each monitoring period. Eight soil cores (2.5-cm diameter x 7.5-cm depth) were randomly sampled and mixed to provide a plot composite. Extractable P and NO3–N of composite samples were analyzed at the Texas A&M University Soil, Water, and Forage Testing Laboratory. An acidified ammonium acetate–EDTA extractant was used to estimate plant-available P (Hons et al., 1990). Soil test P values greater than 42 mg P kg–1 soil for this extractant do not exhibit an agronomic response to P fertilizer. Soil nitrate was extracted and analyzed according to methods described by Dorich and Nelson (1984).

Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1988) was used to analyze variation of runoff volumes and nutrients in clippings, runoff, and soil with respect to runoff events and treatments. The generalized linear models procedure (SAS Institute, 1988) was used to assess variation of soil nutrients, runoff volume, and TDP, TKN, and NO3–N quantities in runoff filtrates. Variation of PP and TKN in sediment fractions of runoff was similarly analyzed. When interactions between runoff events and treatments were significant (P = 0.05), events were analyzed separately. Rates of manure and fertilizer P were treated as class variables in the statistical model. A t test was used to evaluate the null hypothesis that regression slopes relating soil test P to P runoff losses were equal between sprigged treatments top-dressed with composted manure or fertilizer and imported sod (Zar, 1996).


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Turf Establishment
Growth above the clipping height was indicative of turf establishment and growth responses to treatments. An interaction between treatments and mowing dates was significant (P = 0.001), but dry weights and P and N contents of clippings from turf of imported sod were consistently greater than turf established through sprigging and top-dressing of manure P and N (Table 2). Similarly, mean dry weights and P and N content of clippings were consistently greater for transplanted sod produced with fertilizer than for sprigged plots that received similar amounts of total P as fertilizer. Yields of clippings indicated that bermudagrass turf established more quickly from imported sod than from sprigs.


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  		Table 2. Mean dry weight and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and P amounts removed in Tifway bermudagrass clippings during three dates in spring 2001.

 
Phosphorus in Runoff
Total rainfall depth was 247 mm (Table 3) and total runoff depth was 145 mm for nine runoff events during fall 2000. The sum of rainfall was 99 mm (Table 4), and the sum of runoff 54 mm for four runoff events during spring 2001. The rain totals exceeded long-term averages recorded for the months during which runoff was monitored.


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  		Table 3. Mean rainfall and runoff concentrations of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) during nine rain events after P import in transplanted bermudagrass sod or as surface applications of composted manure or fertilizer on sprigged bermudagrass during fall 2000.

 

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  		Table 4. Mean rainfall and runoff concentrations of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) during four rain events after P was imported as composted manure or fertilizer during spring 2001 on Tifway bermudagrass established through sprigging or transplanting of sod.

 
Variation of runoff concentrations of TDP among treatments and interactions between treatments and runoff events were significant (P = 0.001) during fall and spring monitoring periods. When runoff events were analyzed separately, TDP concentrations in runoff differed significantly among treatments during establishment (Tables 3 and 4). Concentrations and variation of TDP were greatest during the first rain event in early October after six of seven treatments were installed (Table 3). The TDP concentrations in runoff from sprigged treatments during this first event were 91% greater for fertilizer (FertSpg) than for manure P imported and top-dressed at comparable rates (LManSpg) (Table 3). The TDP concentrations in runoff and differences between manure and fertilizer sources of P on sprigged treatments were similar to previous runoff studies during simulated rain applications on perennial grass (Edwards and Daniel, 1994). In addition, Gaudreau et al. (2002) observed greater TDP concentrations in runoff 3 d after P applications for fertilizer than for manure P sources on bermudagrass turf.

One advantage of importing manure P in sod was evident during eight of nine rain events when comparing the larger P rate of surface-applied compost (HManSpg) with the moderate manure P amounts imported with sod (MManSod). Although 53% less P was imported and surface-applied on the sprigged treatment (HManSpg), mean TDP concentration in runoff was 1.6 times greater than that for imported sod (MManSod) (Table 3).

The TDP concentrations in runoff from treatments supplied only fertilizer P (FertSpg and FertSod) remained comparatively small during the latter seven of nine runoff events during fall (Table 3). Large TDP concentrations in runoff during Events 1 and 2 indicated a large portion of fertilizer P was lost shortly after application on the sprigged treatment (FertSpg). Import of only small amounts of inorganic P with sod (FertSod) similarly limited TDP concentrations in runoff during the latter runoff events. Starting with Event 4, TDP concentrations in runoff from treatments receiving fertilizer P only (FertSpg and FertSod) were comparable with the control and significantly (P = 0.05) smaller than treatments established with manure P (HManSpg, LManSpg, HManSod, and MManSod) (Table 3). Gaudreau et al. (2002) previously reported larger runoff concentrations of TDP for manure compared with fertilizer P sources during the latter two of four runoff events after P applications.

A second advantage of manure P imports with sod was evident during the spring phase of establishment. Import of manure P with sod during fall eliminated the need for applications of P fertilizer or composted manure during spring. During the first runoff event of spring, concentrations of TDP were significantly less for imported sod produced with manure (HManSod and MManSod) than imported sod produced and top-dressed with fertilizer P (FertSod) (Table 4). In addition, manure P top-dressed on establishing sprigs (HManSpg and LManSpg) contributed to significantly greater TDP concentrations during Runoff Events 1, 2, and 4 than respective manure P rates imported with sod (HManSod and MManSod). Starting at Event 3 in spring, the declining TDP concentrations for imported sod produced with the moderate manure rate (MManSod) were similar to both imported sod (FertSod) and sprigged (FertSpg) treatments top-dressed with P fertilizer (Table 4).

Similar to TDP concentrations, variation of the mass of TDP in runoff among treatments and interactions between treatments and runoff events were significant (P = 0.05) during fall and spring monitoring periods (Tables 5 and 6). During the first runoff event in fall, no significant differences were observed among sprigged treatments (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) (Table 5). Although rates of manure P imported with sod (HManSod and MManSod) were three times that of respective manure P rates on sprigged treatments (HManSpg and LManSpg), TDP losses from imported sod were significantly less during Runoff Events 1 and 3. Similar to previous reports for established turf (Gross et al., 1991; Linde et al., 1995), the dense turf of imported sod minimized the mass of TDP losses in runoff.


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  		Table 5. Mean mass of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) losses during nine runoff events after P imports in transplanted bermudagrass sod or as surface applications of composted manure or fertilizer on sprigged bermudagrass during fall 2000.

 

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  		Table 6. Mean mass of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) losses during four runoff events after P was imported as composted manure or fertilizer during spring 2001 on Tifway bermudagrass established through sprigging or transplanting of sod.

 
During the remainder of fall runoff events, TDP mass losses of manure P from transplanted sod (HManSod and MManSod) were comparable with sprigged treatments (HManSpg and LManSpg) despite larger P imports in sod (Table 5). When TDP runoff losses of the control were subtracted from losses of other treatments, percentages of imported P lost in runoff from sprigged plots (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) were three times greater than imported sod grown with composted manure (HManSpg and MManSod). In addition, treatment comparisons indicated that sod produced with 191 kg manure P ha–1 (LManSpg) could be imported without increasing nonpoint-source losses of TDP compared with conventional establishment practices (FertSod). Moreover, runoff losses of TDP for the moderate manure rate imported with sod (MManSod) were similar to the control during Events 3 through 9.

Observations of TDP mass losses during spring further demonstrated the feasibility of importing manure P in sod without increasing runoff losses of TDP relative to conventional turf establishment (Table 6). Runoff losses of TDP from manure P imported with sod (HManSod and MManSod) were significantly less (P = 0.05) than from sprigged plots (HManSpg and MManSpg) during four rain events (Table 6). Similar to fall observations, TDP losses in runoff from imported sod produced with 191 kg manure P ha–1 (MManSod) were less than or comparable with transplanted sod (FertSod) or sprigged plots top-dressed with fertilizer P (FertSpg) during spring. In addition, TDP losses for transplanted sod produced with the moderate manure rate (MManSod) were comparable with the control during spring (Table 6). After subtracting runoff losses of TDP for the control, percentages of imported P lost during spring runoff events were three times greater for surface applications of composted manure (HManSpg and LManSpg) than for imported sod produced with manure (HManSod and MManSod).

Nitrogen in Runoff
Concentrations and mass losses of TKN in runoff and variation among treatments were greatest during the first runoff event after N applications as composted manure, fertilizer, or sod during fall (Table 7). During Runoff Event 1, TKN concentrations and losses in runoff from sprigged plots top-dressed with manure (HManSpg and LManSPg) or fertilizer N (FertSpg) were significantly greater (P = 0.05) than the control and imported sod produced with manure (HManSod and MManSod) (Table 7). Concentrations of TKN in runoff after manure imports on sprigged treatments (HManSpg and LManSpg) were comparable with observations during simulated rain shortly after 218 kg N was imported in poultry litter on fescuegrass (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) (Edwards and Daniel, 1994). The small TKN concentrations in runoff from imported sod during Runoff Event 1 were comparable with concentrations observed in irrigation runoff 8 h after application of 49 kg N ha–1 as slow-release fertilizer on a similar slope of established perennial turfgrass (Linde and Watschke, 1997). The TKN rates imported in sod (HManSod and MManSod) were three times larger than respective TKN rates applied as composted manure on sprigged treatments (HManSpg and LManSpg). Yet, relatively small TKN concentrations in runoff indicated that manure N in imported sod was less available for transport in runoff than top-dressed manure N (Table 7).


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  		Table 7. Mean concentrations and mass of total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) losses during runoff events shortly after N was applied on Tifway bermudagrass established through transplanting of sod or sprigging during fall 2000.

 
Application of 50 kg fertilizer N ha–1 before Runoff Event 3 contributed to large runoff concentrations of TKN for all treatments (Table 7). Unlike Event 1, TKN concentrations and losses in runoff for Event 3 were not consistently different between sprigged plots and transplanted sod (Table 7). The TKN concentrations in runoff during Event 3 were similar to those reported for the first of four simulated rain events after soluble N fertilizer was top-dressed on established fescuegrass (Edwards and Daniel, 1994). Similar to three additional simulated rains on the fescuegrass (Edwards and Daniel, 1994), TKN and NO3–N concentrations in runoff decreased rapidly and did not differ among treatments during Events 4 through 9 in the current study (data not shown). The NO3–N concentrations in runoff on Events 5 through 9 in the current study were <1.2 mg L–1 and comparable with previously reported values in runoff during repeated irrigation events on established turf (Linde and Watschke, 1997).

During spring 2001, TKN concentrations and mass losses in runoff were not significantly different (P = 0.05) among treatments during Runoff Events 1 and 2 after applications of composted manure or fertilizer N. Yet, runoff concentrations of NO3–N during Event 1 were significantly greater (P = 0.05) for imported sod grown with manure (HManSod and MManSod) rather than fertilizer (FertSod) after top-dressing with N fertilizer (Table 8). The combination of fertilizer N and manure residues in transplanted sod grown with the larger manure rate (HManSod) contributed to the highest NO3–N concentrations and mass losses in runoff among treatments during Rain Events 1 and 2 (Table 8). Yet, treatment differences diminished over four runoff events. These NO3–N concentrations and mass losses were small and comparable with amounts observed previously in irrigation runoff on steep slopes of perennial turfgrasses (Linde and Watschke, 1997).


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  		Table 8. Mean runoff concentrations and mass of NO3–N losses after application of manure or fertilizer during spring 2001 on Tifway bermudagrass established through transplanting of sod or sprigging.

 
Sediment Losses
Mean sediment amounts removed during filtration of tank samples yielded estimates of runoff losses on each date (Table 9). Losses were comparable with observations of Gross et al. (1991) during 30 min of simulated rain (76 mm h–1) on 8% slopes of establishing turf. Sediment loss was significantly different (P = 0.01) among treatments during Runoff Events 1 and 2 and during Events 3 through 9 during fall 2000 (Table 9). During the first two runoff events for fall, sediment losses from sprigged plots (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) were relatively large and similar to exposed soil in plots prepared for transplanting of sod grown with fertilizer (FertSod). Gross et al. (1991) similarly reported four times more sediment loss for bare soil than for seeded treatments of tall fescue during 30 min of simulated rain.


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  		Table 9. Mean sediment losses during runoff events after import of composted manure, fertilizer, or transplanted sod for establishment of Tifway bermudagrass turf. Turf was propagated through transplanting of sod or sprigging during fall 2000.

 
Sediment losses from imported sod grown with manure (HManSod and MManSod) were similar to the control, but significantly (P = 0.05) less than sprigged plots top-dressed with composted manure (HManSpg and LManSpg) or P fertilizer (FertSpg) (Table 9). Although sediment losses varied, total P and TKN losses in sediment were not significantly different (P = 0.05) among treatments on selected sampling dates after manure, fertilizer, or sod imports during fall establishment. Total P loss in sediment averaged only 2.8 mg m–2 for Runoff Event 1 and 2.3 mg m–2 for Event 3 during fall. Losses of TKN in sediment averaged only 8.6 for Event 1 and 10.2 mg m–2 for Event 3 during fall.

Turf growth during the spring phase of establishment reduced sediment losses compared with the early runoff events during fall. An interaction between treatments and runoff events was significant (P = 0.001), but sediment and PP losses differed significantly (P = 0.05) among treatments during Event 1 only (Table 9). Similar to observations during fall, sediment loss from imported sod grown with manure (HManSod and MManSod) was significantly less (P = 0.05) than sprigged plots (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) during Runoff Event 1. Mean losses of PP from imported sod grown with manure (1.4 mg P m–2) (HManSod and MManSod) and other treatments (2.5 mg P m–2) were significantly (P = 0.05) less than losses (3.2 mg P m–2) from sprigged plots top-dressed with the larger manure rate (HManSpg). Total P and TKN losses with sediment of particle sizes of >1.4 µm were a small portion of losses in runoff from all treatments during both fall and spring phases of establishment.

Relating Soil and Runoff Phosphorus
Previous studies of P concentration in short-term, simulated runoff (Pote et al., 1999) indicated that TDP mass losses during turf establishment could be directly related to soil-test P. Regression analysis indicated that the relationship between soil-test P and the sum of TDP losses was linear over nine fall runoff events for the control and treatments established through sod imports (HManSod, MManSod, and FertSod) (Fig. 1) . The relationship between soil-test P and runoff losses of TDP for the control and sprigged treatments (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) was similarly linear, but the slope was significantly different (P = 0.05) from that observed for imported sod treatments. The contrasting slopes between sprigged and imported-sod treatments indicate relationships specific to each establishment practice must be developed to predict runoff losses of TDP based on soil-test P.



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  		Fig. 1. Mean mass of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) in runoff summed over nine rain events and plotted in relation to soil-test P (acidified ammonium acetate EDTA extract) measured at end of the fall 2000 monitoring period. Regression lines and equations were developed separately for imported sod grown with manure or fertilizer and for sprigged treatments top-dressed with manure or fertilizer.

 
Soil sampling after each monitoring period was expected to account for surface applications of manure or fertilizer P in the current study. Yet, manure or fertilizer imports on sprigged plots (HManSpg, LManSpg, and FertSpg) increased TDP losses in runoff compared with similar soil-test P concentrations for imported sod (HManSod, MManSod, and FertSod) (Fig. 1). Surface applications of manure on perennial grassland similarly increased dissolved P concentrations in simulated runoff for different levels of soil-test P in previous studies (Sharpley and Tunney, 2000).

The slope of the regression relationship between soil-test P and mass of TDP losses, summed over runoff events for control and imported-sod treatments, was similar between spring 2001 and fall 2000 (Fig. 1 and 2) . Yet, the largest sum of TDP loss among imported-sod treatments was 44% less in spring than in fall. It is noteworthy that the sum of TDP loss from fertilizer-grown sod (FertSod) over spring events (438 mg m–2) was largest among the imported-sod treatments. The application of 50 kg ha–1 of fertilizer P on imported fertilizer-grown sod (FertSod) during spring increased the sum of TDP loss over four runoff events to 125% of the sum for fall events.



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  		Fig. 2. Mean mass of total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) in runoff summed over four rain events and plotted in relation to soil-test P (acidified ammonium acetate EDTA extract) measured at end of spring monitoring period. The mean losses for sprigged plots top-dressed with 50 or 100 kg P ha–1 as composted manure or 50 kg P ha–1 as fertilizer were not included in the regression relationship represented by the trend line plotted for control (soil-test P = 53 mg kg–1) and imported sod treatments.

 
A comparison between spring and fall TDP losses from imported sod grown at the highest manure P rate (HManSod) yielded contrasting results. The sum of mass loss of TDP over spring events for the HManSod treatment (295 mg m–2) was 63% less than the fall loss. Flooding and runoff caused by the irrigation malfunction during March 2001 reduced mean soil-test P of the HManSod treatment 48% compared with soil sampled after Runoff Event 9 during fall.

Similar to fall 2000, top-dressing of 50 and 100 kg of manure P ha–1 on sprigged plots (HManSpg and LManSpg) contributed to greater sums of TDP mass loss over spring runoff events than losses from imported-sod treatments (HManSod and MManSod) (Fig. 2). The sum of TDP mass losses for the two manure P rates on sprigged plots was substantially greater than predicted by the regression line for imported sod.


   CONCLUSIONS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
 
Monitoring of runoff during fall and spring phases of turf establishment illustrated three advantages of importing manure P through sod rather than surface applications of composted manure. First, bermudagrass turf established more rapidly from imported sod produced with manure than from sprigged treatments top-dressed with composted manure or fertilizer P. Second, import of sod produced with manure eliminated imports and topdressing of fertilizer or manure P during turf establishment. This import of manure P with sod rather than as surface applications on sprigged surfaces minimized runoff loss of TDP during fall and spring. In addition, runoff loss of manure P from imported sod during spring was less than the conventional practice of top-dressing fertilizer P during spring on imported sod produced with fertilizer.

The third advantage concerns P retention within imported sod. Percentages of imported P lost in runoff from transplanted sod were a fraction of percentages lost after surface applications of composted manure or fertilizer during turf establishment in fall and spring. At similar soil-test P levels, runoff losses of manure P from imported sod were less than one half of losses from sprigged plots top-dressed with composted manure.

In addition to advantages specified, observations during 12 of 13 runoff events provided information relevant to export and import of composted manure through sod. A manure P rate of 191 kg ha–1 during sod production will eliminate requirements for P fertilizer after manure-grown sod is imported, but runoff losses of TDP will be no greater than imported or established sod top-dressed with typical rates of fertilizer P.

Losses of TKN or NO3–N in runoff from sod produced with manure were similar to imported sod produced with fertilizer P. The N losses from all treatments were small and mean NO3–N concentrations in runoff were less than the drinking water standard of 10 mg NO3–N L–1.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We gratefully acknowledge financial support of the USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program of the Southern Region, the USGS National Water Resources Institute, and the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 




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N. E. Hansen, D. M. Vietor, C. L. Munster, R. H. White, and T. L. Provin
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