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Journal of Environmental Quality 32:310-316 (2003)
© 2003 American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America

TECHNICAL REPORTS
Surface Water Quality

Relationships between Phosphorus Levels in Soil and in Runoff from Corn Production Systems

Todd W. Andraski* and Larry G. Bundy

Department of Soil Science, 1525 Observatory Dr., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706-1299

* Corresponding author (andraski@.wisc.edu)

Received for publication March 12, 2002.

   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Phosphorus-enriched runoff from cropland can hasten eutrophication of surface waters. A soil P level exceeding crop needs due to long-term fertilizer and/or manure applications is one of several potential sources of increased P losses in runoff from agricultural systems. Field experiments were conducted at locations representative of three major soil regions in Wisconsin in corn (Zea mays L.) production systems to determine the effect of tillage, recent manure additions, soil P extraction method, and soil sampling depth (0–2, 0–5, and 0–15 cm) on the relationship between soil test P level and P concentrations in runoff. Runoff from simulated rainfall (75 mm h-1) was collected from 0.83-m2 areas for 1 h after rainfall initiation and analyzed for dissolved phosphorus (DP), total phosphorus (TP), and sediment. The DP fraction of the TP concentration in runoff ranged from 5 to 17% among sites with most of the variation in TP due to varying sediment concentration on the well-drained silt loam soils and to soil test P level on the poorly drained silty clay loam soil. In 213 observations across a range of soils and managements, good relationships occurred between soil test P level and DP concentration in runoff for most of the tests and sampling depths used. Recent manure additions and high levels of surface cover from corn residue sometimes masked this relationship. The slope of DP relative to soil test P level was markedly higher on the silty clay loam soil than on the silt loam soils possibly due to soil permeability–infiltration rate differences. Agronomic soil P tests were as effective as environmentally oriented soil P tests for predicting DP concentrations in runoff.

Abbreviations: CP-, chisel plow without manure applied in the study year • CP+, chisel plow with manure applied in the study year • DP, dissolved phosphorus • NT-, no-till without manure applied in the study year • NT+, no-till with manure applied in the study year • TP, total phosphorus


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
IDENTIFYING CROPLAND that is highly susceptible to P losses and using management practices that minimize these losses is critical to controlling cultural eutrophication of lakes and streams (Daniel et al., 1994). A soil P level exceeding crop needs due to long-term fertilizer and/or manure applications is one of several potential sources of increased P losses in runoff from agricultural systems (Sharpley et al., 1996). Surface (0–15 cm) soil testing is commonly used for fertilizer recommendations for most agronomic crops. Most states in the USA indicate that a significant percentage of agricultural soils are agronomically classified in the high or excessively high soil test P categories (Sims, 1993), and within states, higher soil test P levels occur in areas with intensive livestock operations (Sims et al., 1998). Reducing soil P levels on agricultural lands is uncomplicated for grain-based farming systems where most P inputs are from inorganic P fertilizers. Conversely, reducing soil P levels in livestock-based farming systems is more challenging due to logistic and economic difficulties involved with manure management and the imbalance of nitrogen and P in manure relative to crop needs. In addition, continued land application of manure is often the only practical management option for livestock producers.

Studies on pastureland have shown that dissolved phosphorus (DP) concentrations in runoff are highly dependent on soil test P levels (Sharpley et al., 1977, 1978, 1994; Daniel et al., 1994; Pote et al., 1996, 1999). Based on these studies, it appears that soil P testing can serve as a valuable diagnostic tool for identifying critical land areas subject to potentially high P losses in runoff to surface waters in grass or pastureland systems where DP is the dominant fraction of P in runoff. Pote et al. (1996)( 1999) showed that P concentrations in runoff were similarly related to a wide range of soil P extraction methods including agronomic (Bray P1, Mehlich III, Morgan, and Olsen) and environmentally oriented tests (ammonium oxalate, distilled water, iron oxide–coated paper, soil P saturation). Kleinman et al. (2000) found a strong linear relationship between soil test P level (Morgan) and soil P saturation supporting the use of agronomic soil P tests as a source risk indicator of potential P losses. Unlike pasturelands, the relationship between P in runoff and soil test P level with a variety of agronomic and environmentally oriented soil P extraction methods has not been directly evaluated in row crop systems.

A recent study in North Carolina where corn was grown indicated strong relationships between Mehlich III–extractable soil P level (0–15 cm) and DP concentration in runoff; however, the DP fraction represented only 1 to 26% of the total phosphorus (TP) concentration in runoff depending on soil type–parent material, tillage, P source, and rate of P application (Cox and Hendricks, 2000). The relationship between soil test P and P concentration (DP and TP) in runoff needs further investigation in row crop production systems because particulate phosphorus (PP) becomes the dominant fraction of P in runoff due to greater sediment losses on fine-textured soils as soil surface cover decreases (Sharpley et al., 1992). Small-plot studies indicate an average of 86% of TP in runoff was sediment bound (particulate P) in row crop production systems (Wendt and Corey, 1980; Mueller et al., 1984; Andraski et al., 1985; Ginting et al., 1998; Eghball and Gilley, 1999; Eghball et al., 2000; Bundy et al., 2001). In a 7-yr watershed study, Vaithiyanathan and Correll (1992) reported an average ratio of particulate P to DP discharges of 3:1 and 16:1 from forested- and row cropped–watersheds, respectively. The USEPA has developed nutrient criteria based on TP in water (USEPA, 2000a,b), and reviews on P in lake sediments and waters by Syers et al. (1973) and Correll (1998) suggest particulate P has a significant effect on algal growth in waterbodies due to reequilibration with the receiving water's DP concentration via desorption of P from solid phases. These waterbody P concentrations may change at various times during the year due to input from rivers containing high sediment contents or during spring turnover of lakes. These reviews coupled with studies indicating particulate P is the dominant fraction of P in runoff in row crop production systems emphasizes the importance of evaluating sediment-bound P losses in runoff in addition to the DP fraction.

As indicated by Sharpley et al. (1994), soil sampling depths used for agronomic purposes (15–20 cm) may not accurately account for potential P losses in runoff from pastureland since P applications from fertilizer and/or manure are broadcast on the surface resulting in significant P accumulations in the uppermost soil surface. Stratification of soil P is also likely to occur in no-till row cropping systems, but the effect of surface cover in the form of corn residue on the relationship between soil test P level and P in runoff at various sampling depths is unknown. The objectives of this study were to (i) determine the relationship between DP and TP concentration in runoff and soil test P level with several agronomic and environmentally oriented soil P extraction methods and sampling depths and (ii) clarify the form of P (DP or PP) in runoff that was preferentially lost and some of the factors affecting this loss.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Field experiments were conducted from 1998 to 2001 at locations representative of three major soil regions of Wisconsin used for corn production (Table 1). Soil regions included the forest-derived silty soils of southwestern Wisconsin (Lancaster), the prairie-derived silty soils of southern Wisconsin (Arlington and Madison), and the forest-derived clayey soils of eastern Wisconsin (Fond du Lac) as described by Hole (1976). For simplification, the Arlington and Madison locations will be referred to as the Arlington location. At Lancaster, Arlington, and Fond du Lac, respectively, surface (0–2 cm) soil clay content was 16, 22, and 38%; surface soil silt content was 73, 62, and 42%; and surface soil pH was 6.9, 6.5, and 7.5.


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  		Table 1. Soil description and characteristics of three study locations in Wisconsin.

 
Treatments at the three locations included all of the following: variable soil test P levels derived from previous inorganic fertilizer and/or dairy manure applications, tillage, and study year (spring) dairy manure application [without (-) and with (+)]. Each experiment included four replications of all treatments. Tillage systems included no-till (NT) where manure and/or corn residue remained on the soil surface and chisel plow (CP) where manure and/or corn residue was partially incorporated to a 20-cm depth with residue cutting disks followed by 7.6-cm-wide twisted shovels. Tillage treatments were established in 1993 and maintained annually at Lancaster, whereas NT treatments were established in the study year at Arlington and Fond du Lac. Application rates for the manure-treated plots were 72 Mg ha-1 (wet) at each location. Total manure P rates were 79, 66, and 107 kg ha-1 at Lancaster, Arlington, and Fond du Lac, respectively. Manure dry matter contents ranged from 160 to 180 g kg-1 and had semisolid handling characteristics (Midwest Plan Service, 2000). Study year manure applications supplied approximately 80% of the recommended N rate for corn (180 kg ha-1) and were typical of rates applied in corn production systems (Kelling et al., 1998). The amount of first-year available P supplied in manure was about equal to total P removal by corn (50 kg ha-1).

Rainfall simulations were performed in spring before planting and in fall following harvest on the same treatments at Lancaster, Fond du Lac, and in two of the five studies at Arlington. Simulations were conducted in summer in three of the five Arlington studies and corn plants within each plot frame were cut near the base and removed prior to rainfall simulation. Simulated rainfall was applied with a portable, multiple intensity rainfall simulator (Meyer and Harmon, 1979) equipped with a Veejet 80150 nozzle (Spraying Systems, Wheaton, IL) located 3 m above the soil surface delivering an application rate of 75 mm h-1 with a corresponding energy of 0.278 MJ ha-1 mm-1. This rainfall intensity has a recurrence interval of about 50 yr (Huff and Angel, 1992). Steel plot frames (91 cm long by 91 cm wide by 30 cm high) were set in the soil at a 15-cm depth before simulated rain was applied. Runoff was collected on the downslope side of the plot frame, continuously removed by a 0.02-MPa vacuum (Dixon and Peterson, 1968), and placed in a holding tank. Runoff was collected for a 60-min period following the onset of simulated rainfall, and the total volume of runoff from each plot was recorded. After mixing to resuspend sediment, subsamples of the runoff were obtained for sediment, DP, and TP determinations. The subsample for DP determination was filtered (0.45-µm pore diameter) immediately in the field. Subsamples for TP determination were acidified to 0.01 M H2SO4 (USEPA, 1993). Samples were frozen until analyses were performed. Sediment concentration in runoff was determined by weighing before and after drying at 105°C. Dissolved P in runoff filtrate samples was determined with the ascorbic acid method (Murphy and Riley, 1962). Total P was determined by ammonium persulfate and sulfuric acid digestion on aliquots of unfiltered runoff suspension (USEPA, 1993). Only 51 of the 95 plots at Arlington were analyzed for TP concentration. Runoff samples collected before fall 1999 were not analyzed for TP.

Slope and surface residue cover was determined for each plot prior to simulated rainfall application. Average slope was 6% at Lancaster, 5% at Arlington, and 2% at Fond du Lac. Surface cover as corn residue averaged across time of year and location was 23% in CP and 52% in NT with the pin-drop method (Morrison et al., 1996). Soil samples were obtained at three depth increments (0–2, 2–5, and 5–15 cm) from the outside perimeter of each plot frame prior to simulated rainfall application and were dried at 32°C, ground to pass a 2-mm sieve, and extracted for P with the Bray P1 method (Frank et al., 1998). Additionally, the 0- to 2-cm soil samples were extracted for P with several other methods including Mehlich III (Mehlich, 1984), distilled water extraction (Pote et al., 1996), and the iron-oxide paper strip method (Sharpley, 1993). Phosphorus in the extracts obtained by each method was determined colorimetrically with the ascorbic acid method. Ammonium oxalate–extractable soil P, iron (Fe), and aluminum (Al) were also determined with an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP–OES), and the P saturation index of the soil was calculated as the oxalate-extractable P (mmol kg-1) divided by the sum of the oxalate-extractable Fe and Al (mmol kg-1) content, and multiplied by 100 (Schoumans, 2000). Data analysis to determine the relationship between soil test P level and P concentration in runoff was performed with the simple linear regression method of PROC REG (SAS Institute, 1992).


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Soil Test Phosphorus Values
Soil test P values (0–2 cm) using several extraction methods at all locations ranged from 9 to 47% P saturation, 160 to 1108 mg kg-1 for ammonium oxalate, 5 to 335 mg kg-1 for iron-oxide strip, 1 to 78 mg kg-1 for water, 7 to 325 mg kg-1 for Mehlich III, and 5 to 274 mg kg-1 for Bray P1 (Table 2). Average Bray P1 soil test levels generally decreased with increasing soil depth at all locations due to P stratification in no-till and unincorporated manure treatments. Agronomic interpretation of Bray P1–extractable soil P levels at the 0- to 15-cm depth ranged from the very low (<5–10 mg kg-1) to excessively high category (>25–30 mg kg-1) and mean values for each location were greater than optimum levels (11–20 mg kg-1) recommended for corn production in Wisconsin (Kelling et al., 1998).


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  		Table 2. Soil test P values using several extraction methods at three study locations.

 
Dissolved Phosphorus in Runoff
The effect of tillage, manure, soil test P extraction method, and soil sampling depth on coefficients of simple determination (r2) for regression models representing the relationships between soil test P level and DP concentration in runoff at three locations is shown in Table 3. At Lancaster, a strong relationship between soil test P level and DP concentration occurred in CP-, but not in CP+, NT-, or NT+. In CP-, r2 values were highest for the Bray P1, Mehlich III, and water methods (0.77 and 0.78), slightly lower for iron-oxide strip (0.68), and lowest for ammonium oxalate (0.34) and P saturation (0.40) at the 0- to 2-cm sampling depth. Recent manure additions and/or high surface cover from corn residue apparently masked the effect of soil test P level on DP in runoff in CP+, NT-, and NT+. Soil sampling depth did not improve relationships in CP+, NT-, and NT+, but resulted in slight decreases in r2 values with increasing depth in CP-.


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  		Table 3. Effect of location, tillage, and study year manure application on the relationships between soil test P level and dissolved P concentration in runoff represented by coefficients of simple determination (r2) using several soil P extraction methods.

 
At Arlington, strong relationships between soil test P level and DP concentration in runoff occurred in NT-, CP-, and CP+, but not in NT+. Recent manure additions masked the relationship of soil test P level on DP in runoff in NT+, but not CP+. The r2 values were consistently higher with the Bray P1, Mehlich III, water, and iron-oxide strip methods at the 0- to 2-cm sampling depth than for the ammonium oxalate and P saturation methods. Similar or higher r2 values were observed as sampling depth increased where no manure was applied (NT- and CP-), but was slightly lower at 0 to 15 cm (0.71) compared with 0- to 2- and 0- to 5-cm depths (0.86) in CP+.

At Fond du Lac, the relationship between soil test P at the 0- to 2-cm depth and DP concentration in runoff with the P saturation method resulted in consistently higher r2 values than other methods for all tillage and manure treatment combinations, but was similar to the water method in NT-, CP-, and NT+. Significant relationships were observed for all soil P extraction methods except for the ammonium oxalate method where r2 values ranged from 0.05 to 0.14 among tillage and manure treatment combinations. Recent manure additions generally lowered r2 values for both tillage systems. Similar or higher r2 values occurred as soil sampling depth increased with similar values for the Bray P1 method sampled to a 15-cm depth and the P saturation method (0–2 cm) in NT- and CP-.

These results indicate that recent manure additions (<6 mo) tend to overshadow relationships between soil test P level and DP concentration in runoff suggesting a source risk analysis for manure needs to be accounted for separately in the application year. In general, the water-extractable soil P method resulted in similar or higher r2 values compared with the other environmentally oriented soil P test methods. Where no manure was applied, regression models were determined for relationships between soil P level and DP concentration in runoff with the water (0–2 cm) and Bray P1 (0–15 cm) P extraction methods in no-till and chisel plow for each location (Table 4). Regression models did not significantly represent this relationship in NT- for the water or Bray P1 methods at Lancaster, but the slope of the regression line (0.0021x) with the Bray P1 method was similar to CP- at Lancaster (0.0023x) and NT- and CP- at Arlington (0.0020x and 0.0021x). Slopes were also similar with the water method for both tillage systems at Arlington (0.011x and 0.012x) and for CP- (0.011x) at Lancaster, but not for NT- (0.005x). Regression line slopes were markedly higher at Fond du Lac for both soil P test methods compared with Lancaster and Arlington. Slopes were also higher for the other soil P test methods (P saturation, ammonium oxalate, iron-oxide strip, and Mehlich III) at Fond du Lac compared with Lancaster and Arlington (data not shown).


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  		Table 4. Regression model analysis for the relationship between soil P and dissolved P concentration in runoff using the water (0–2 cm) and Bray P1 (0–15 cm) P extraction methods at three locations in no-till and chisel plow systems without recent manure additions.

 
The higher DP concentrations in runoff at Fond du Lac suggest that P storage compounds in this soil may have higher water solubility than soils at the other locations, possibly due to the higher soil pH. However, higher soil P solubility was not reflected in higher water-extractable soil test P values at the Fond du Lac location. Pote et al. (1999)(2001) reported lower DP concentrations from soils with lower runoff volumes apparently due to the rapid infiltration of DP below the primary zone of transfer to surface runoff. In our study, total runoff averaged 58 mm (76% of rainfall) at Fond du Lac compared with 25 mm at Lancaster and 32 mm at Arlington. The slower infiltration rate at Fond du Lac may have resulted in more interaction between runoff and near-surface soil water, thus increasing DP concentrations. Therefore, the interface between runoff and soil probably occurred to greater soil depths, resulting in more potentially extractable soil DP due to a greater soil volume. These results mirror those of Pote et al. (1999)(2001), suggesting that prediction of potential DP concentrations in runoff may need to be adjusted for soil permeability.

Due to the similarity between regression slopes among tillage systems and locations at Lancaster and Arlington, the relationship between Bray P1–extractable soil P (0–15 cm) and DP concentration in runoff was determined with combined data from both locations and tillage systems and compared with Fond du Lac (Fig. 1) . The slope of the regression model at Fond du Lac (0.0120x) was five times higher than at Lancaster and Arlington (0.0024x). Solving for Bray P1 soil test values (x) where DP concentrations (y) were equal to 1 mg L-1, threshold soil test P values were 90 mg kg-1 at Fond du Lac and 410 mg kg-1 at Lancaster and Arlington. Note that threshold soil test P values were estimated beyond the range of observed values since DP concentrations in runoff were below 1 mg L-1 and soil test P values were less than threshold values.



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  		Fig. 1. Relationship between soil test P level (Bray P1, 0–15 cm) and dissolved P concentration in runoff for no-till and chisel plow systems without recent manure additions on well-drained silt loam soils at Lancaster and Arlington and on a poorly drained silty clay loam soil at Fond du Lac.

 
These results do not indicate an obvious advantage of using alternative soil P extraction methods or shallower sampling depths compared with current agronomic soil tests for predicting DP concentrations in runoff from row crop production systems. Poor relationships between soil test P level and DP concentrations in runoff occurred in some management systems. For example, surface cover from corn residue masked soil test P effects at Lancaster in NT-, but not at Arlington and Fond du Lac. This may be due to the long-term no-till history at Lancaster (8 yr) resulting in higher surface residue levels (62 ± 16%) than at Arlington (48 ± 12%) and Fond du Lac (26 ± 11%), where NT treatments were established in the study year. Higher DP concentrations at low soil test P levels in NT- at Lancaster (i.e., higher intercept, Table 4) may be due to higher amounts of mineralized P in corn residue recovered in runoff due to high residue levels (McDowell and McGregor, 1984; Schreiber, 1999). Recent manure applications also tended to mask soil test P effects on DP concentrations in runoff due to soluble P losses from manure (Table 3). The effect of recent manure applications on the relationship between soil test P levels and DP concentrations in runoff appears to be temporary in tilled systems as indicated by the high r2 values in CP- at Lancaster (Table 3). Conversely, past manure additions without incorporation may require a longer period of time to equilibrate with soil (Pierson et al., 2001). In our study, soil test P levels in NT- at Lancaster probably reflected past manure additions since the most recent application occurred nearly 36 mo before the study year. Therefore, these results suggest that surface corn residue cover above a certain level can mask the relationship between soil test P and runoff DP as indicated by the low r2 values in NT- at Lancaster.

Total Phosphorus in Runoff
A significant (p = 0.01) but weak relationship between DP and TP concentrations in runoff occurred at Fond du Lac, but not at Lancaster (p = 0.79) or Arlington (p = 0.06), where the highest TP concentrations occurred when DP concentrations were lowest (Fig. 2) . Sediment concentration in runoff explained most of the variation in TP concentration at Lancaster (r2 = 0.85) and Arlington (r2 = 0.63), indicating that most of the TP was sediment bound at these locations (Table 5). Sediment was also significantly correlated with TP concentration at Fond du Lac (r2 = 0.32), but soil test P explained slightly more of the variation in TP (r2 = 0.44–0.65) and may explain the stronger relationship between DP and TP concentration in runoff.



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  		Fig. 2. Relationship between dissolved P and total P concentrations in runoff at three locations.

 

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  		Table 5. Correlation coefficients (r) for several variables correlated with total P concentration in runoff among all tillage and manure treatments at three locations.

 
The relationship between sediment and total P concentration in runoff at each location is shown graphically in Fig. 3 . It appears that sediment-bound P more strongly influenced TP concentration in runoff as the silt to clay ratio of the surface soil increased as indicated by r2 values of 0.10 at Fond du Lac (1:1 silt to clay), 0.36 at Arlington (3:1), and 0.72 at Lancaster (5:1). Likewise, the ratio of TP to DP concentration in runoff increased from 9:1 at Fond du Lac, 15:1 at Arlington, and 22:1 at Lancaster in CP- with increasing silt to clay ratios. The TP to DP ratio generally decreased with increasing surface cover from manure and/or corn residue due to lower sediment concentrations. Sediment concentrations in runoff were inversely correlated with surface cover at Lancaster (r2 = -0.81, p < 0.01), Arlington (r2 = -0.42, p < 0.01), and Fond du Lac (r2 = -0.37, p < 0.01) (Table 5). However, relationships between soil test P level and TP in runoff did not improve in treatments with a lower ratio of TP to DP because TP concentrations were still markedly higher than DP concentrations across soil type, tillage, and manure variables.



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  		Fig. 3. Relationship between sediment and total P concentrations in runoff at three locations.

 

   CONCLUSIONS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
 
The DP fraction of the TP concentration in runoff ranged from 5 to 17% among sites and most of the variation in TP was related to sediment concentration as affected by surface cover on the well-drained silt loam soils (r = 0.85 and 0.63), whereas soil test P level had the most significant effect on TP on the poorly drained silty clay loam soil (r = 0.44–0.65). Sediment-bound P more strongly influenced TP concentration in runoff as the silt to clay ratio of the surface soil increased from 1:1 to 5:1.

In 213 observations across a range of soils and managements in corn production systems, the relationship between DP concentration in runoff and soil test P was not improved using alternative soil P extraction methods or shallower sampling depths compared with the agronomic soil test methods currently in use. Collectively, this work and that of Pote et al. (1996)(1999) indicates that widely available agronomic soil P tests will provide an adequate indication of DP concentration in runoff and that specialized environmental soil P tests are usually not needed to predict DP concentration in runoff. This study shows that high corn residue surface cover, recent additions of manure, and low soil permeability can alter the relationship between soil test P level and DP concentration in runoff and may need to be accounted for when interpreting potential P losses in runoff using soil P tests. In general, current agronomic soil P tests should provide sufficient information as part of a comprehensive approach for identifying critical land areas subject to potentially high P losses in surface runoff.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
This research was supported by the Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection, the USDA-CSREES NRI-Agricultural Systems Research Program (Grant no. 9703968), the Wisconsin Fertilizer Research Fund, the University of Wisconsin Consortium for Extension and Research in Agriculture and Natural Resources, the Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District, the University of Wisconsin Nonpoint Pollution and Demonstration Project, and the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The authors gratefully acknowledge J.S. Studnicka for technical support and the contributions from the cooperating farmers at Fond du Lac and the staff at the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Research Stations at Arlington, Lancaster, and West Madison. Mention of company and/or trade name does not constitute endorsement by the University of Wisconsin-Madison to the exclusion of others.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 




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Phosphorus Runoff during Four Years following Composted Manure Application.
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H. Zhang, J. L. Schroder, R. L. Davis, J. J. Wang, M. E. Payton, W. E. Thomason, Y. Tang, and W. R. Raun
Phosphorus Loss in Runoff from Long-term Continuous Wheat Fertility Trials
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J. L. Little, D. R. Bennett, and J. J. Miller
Nutrient and Sediment Losses Under Simulated Rainfall Following Manure Incorporation by Different Methods
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J. D. Grande, K. G. Karthikeyan, P. S. Miller, and J. M. Powell
Corn Residue Level and Manure Application Timing Effects on Phosphorus Losses in Runoff
J. Environ. Qual., August 9, 2005; 34(5): 1620 - 1631.
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H. A. Elliott, R. C. Brandt, and G. A. O'Connor
Runoff Phosphorus Losses from Surface-Applied Biosolids
J. Environ. Qual., August 9, 2005; 34(5): 1632 - 1639.
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P. A. Vadas, P. J. A. Kleinman, A. N. Sharpley, and B. L. Turner
Relating Soil Phosphorus to Dissolved Phosphorus in Runoff: A Single Extraction Coefficient for Water Quality Modeling
J. Environ. Qual., March 1, 2005; 34(2): 572 - 580.
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B. L. Turner, M. A. Kay, and D. T. Westermann
Phosphorus in Surface Runoff from Calcareous Arable Soils of the Semiarid Western United States
J. Environ. Qual., September 1, 2004; 33(5): 1814 - 1821.
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I. C. Daverede, A. N. Kravchenko, R. G. Hoeft, E. D. Nafziger, D. G. Bullock, J. J. Warren, and L. C. Gonzini
Phosphorus Runoff from Incorporated and Surface-Applied Liquid Swine Manure and Phosphorus Fertilizer
J. Environ. Qual., July 1, 2004; 33(4): 1535 - 1544.
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T. W. Andraski, L. G. Bundy, and K. C. Kilian
Manure History and Long-Term Tillage Effects on Soil Properties and Phosphorus Losses in Runoff
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