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TECHNICAL REPORT
Plant and Environment Interactions

Soil Organic Carbon Pools and Sequestration Rates in Reclaimed Minesoils in Ohio

School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State Univ., 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210

* Corresponding author (lal.1{at}osu.edu)

Received for publication October 27, 2000.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
A chronosequence of reclaimed minelands under two land uses was studied to determine the potential of minesoil reclamation to sequester carbon (C). Effects of four treatments, consisting of pasture and forest with and without topsoil application, were assessed on temporal changes in soil C pool. The control sites were a 70-yr-old marginal agricultural land under pasture and a 65-yr-old reclaimed forest land. The soil organic carbon (SOC) pool of pasture treatment with topsoil application increased from 9.2 to 55.4 Mg ha^-1 after 25 yr for the 0- to 15-cm depth and from 7.8 to 37.8 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth. The rate of SOC sequestration in the pasture treatment ranged from 0.5 to 3.1 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth, and from 0.4 to 1.9 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth over the 25-yr period. The SOC pool of forest treatment with topsoil application increased from 14 to 48.4 Mg ha^-1 in 21 yr for the 0- to 15-cm depth, and from 8.4 to 14.5 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth. The rate of SOC sequestration in the forest treatment ranged from 0.7 to 2.3 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and from 0.3 to 0.4 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth over the 21-yr period. The pasture and forest treatments without topsoil application were a minimum of 30 yr old and hence, the SOC pools were almost constant ranging between 60 and 70 Mg ha^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 30 and 40 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth.

Abbreviations: SOC, soil organic carbon

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
HUMAN alteration of earth's ecosystems is drastic (Vitousek et al., 1997), especially with regard to changes in the global C cycle. In addition to fossil fuel combustion, anthropogenic activities with severe impact on the C cycle include deforestation and biomass burning, conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems, and drastic soil disturbance by mining. Deforestation in the U.S. resulted in emission of 32.6 Pg C between 1700 and 1950 both from vegetation and soil (Houghton and Hackler, 2000). Similarly, mining and related activities cause drastic perturbation to terrestrial ecosystems, leading to severe soil degradation. Consequently, there is a severe loss of soil organic carbon (SOC) by soil disturbance through mining operations due to enhanced mineralization, erosion, and leaching (Lal et al., 1998). In contrast, reclaimed minesoils develop recognizable horizonation in relatively short periods of time (Haering et al., 1993) and sequester carbon. Daniels and Amos (1981) examined chronosequences of minesoils in southwest Virginia and found that an A horizon up to 13 cm thick had formed in 5-yr-old minesoils. The exposed unweathered spoil material is generally reactive and can undergo rapid changes in physical and chemical properties, including SOC content.

The rate of SOC sequestration depends on productivity of the forest or pastures established on reclaimed mineland and on minesoil quality. Post and Kwon (2000) documented that establishment of perennial vegetation can reverse some of the effects responsible for SOC losses when the natural vegetation was removed. Jobbagy and Jackson (2000) reported that vertical distribution of SOC differs among grass and forest vegetation. In the context of reducing emissions of greenhouse gases from terrestrial ecosystems, well-managed soils with perennial vegetation cover are repositories of C (Kern and Johnson, 1993; Paustian et al., 1995; Follett et al., 2000).

Reclamation of minelands mitigates the negative environmental consequences associated with mining (Barnhisel and Hower, 1997; Daniels and Zipper, 1995). Reclamation curtails soil degradation, sets soil restorative processes in motion, and leads to soil C sequestration (Vimmerstedt et al., 1989; Akala and Lal, 1999, 2000). The rate of SOC sequestration in reclaimed minesoils is a function of time, climate, antecedent soil properties, vegetation, and pre- and post-reclamation mineland management (Jenkinson, 1981; Hopps, 1994; Schulze and Stitt, 1995; Merrill et al., 1998). Temporal increments in the SOC pool are indicative of improvement in soil quality and potential of SOC sequestration.

The trend of depletion of SOC by mining can be reversed through reclamation of minelands. While reclamation of minelands coupled with judicious land management may lead to SOC enhancement, the rates of SOC sequestration are not known. Thus, the objectives of this study were to assess the sink capacity of reclaimed minesoils to sequester SOC and to determine the rate of SOC sequestration for different land use systems.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Site Description and Sampling
Measurements of the SOC pool in reclaimed minelands were made on sites in Morgan, Muskingum, and Noble counties in southeastern Ohio, USA. The region has temperate continental climate, with average annual daily temperature of 11°C, maximum temperature of 18°C, and minimum temperature of 4°C. The average relative humidity in mid-afternoon is about 60%, with a high of 80% at night. The probable date of first freeze in the fall ranges from 1 October to 3 November, and that of the last freeze from 10 April to 25 May. The average seasonal snowfall is 660 mm, and the total annual precipitation is 1020 mm. Of the total precipitation, 60% is received from April through September. The total number of growing degree days (>10°C) is 3200. Predominant soils of the region are classified as fine loamy mixed mesic Aquultic, Ultic, and Typic Udorthents (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1990, 1996b, 1998). The bedrock is sedimentary in nature consisting of sandstone, shale, siltstone, limestone, and coal. Soils in natural ecosystems have good surface drainage but are subject to moderate or severe erosion. The main industries in the region are coal mining, sand gravels, and oil and gas production.

The reclaimed minelands are owned and operated by Central Ohio Coal Company, a subsidiary of American Electric Power (AEP). During the 1930s, mining was relatively less detrimental to soil because the technology used was suitable only for the mining of shallow coal seams. Subsequent to shallow mining, the spoil (mixture of topsoil and overburden) was spread and the land planted to trees. Currently, the mining process involves clearing the secondary forest established since the first mining in the 1930s, removing and storing the topsoil, removing overburden and coal, and grading and establishing the vegetative cover (predominantly pasture). Sites selected for the present study were mined completely, and subsequently put under final reclamative land use.

There were two post-reclamation land uses: pasture and forest. Predominant species grown in the pasture were big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman), little bluestem [Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash], orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), timothy (Phleum pretense L.), bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.), and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). The forest land use was primarily comprised of mixed hardwood species including fir (Abies spp.), sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata L.), birch (Betula spp.), crabapple (Malus spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), pine (Pinus spp.), poplar (Populus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), and locust (Robinia spp.) (Hossner, 1991; Holl and Cairns, 1994).

Two chronosequences, one each for forest and pasture land use, were selected for the study. Considering 1997 as the reference or baseline year, a chronosequence of 0-, 5-, 10-, 15-, 20-, and 25-yr-old reclaimed sites corresponding with reclamation since 1997, 1992, 1987, 1982, 1977, and 1972, respectively, were chosen for the sites with topsoil application. Similarly, a chronosequence consisting of 30-, 35-, 40-, 45-, and 50-yr-old reclaimed sites, corresponding with reclamation since 1967, 1962, 1957, 1952, and 1947, respectively, were chosen for sites without topsoil application. Based on the above, the reclaimed pasture sites were compared with a 70-yr-old marginal agricultural land under pasture and the reclaimed forest sites were compared with a 65-yr-old reclaimed forest. These sites are referred to as the pasture and forest control sites, respectively. The average SOC content of the predominant (unmined) soils under native vegetation in three counties (Morgan, Muskingum, and Noble) ranges from 3 to 35 g kg^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1990, 1996b, 1998).

Soil Analysis
Soil sampling protocol for two land use treatments, five reclamation durations with and without topsoil application, two sampling depths, and three replications are shown in Table 1. Soil samples were obtained for the 0- to 15- and 15- to 30-cm depths by digging soil profiles using a backhoe. A total of three subsamples were obtained for each depth and composited. Only one composited sample was used for analyses for each depth. Soil samples were then air-dried, ground, and sieved to separate whole soil (<2 mm) and soil aggregates (5–8 mm). Soil bulk density (_b) was determined by the core method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Because of a high gravel content, the gravel-free bulk density was computed assuming a particle density (_s) of 2.65 Mg m^-3. The soil pH was measured for a 1:1 solution of whole soil sample in deionized water (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1996a). The whole soil samples were ground to pass through a 100-µm sieve prior to determining the SOC and N contents. An average sample amount of 80 to 120 mg was used to analyze SOC and N contents by the dry combustion method using a Carbo–Erba (Milan, Italy) analyzer (Nelson and Sommers, 1986; USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1996a). The method was calibrated using atropine (C₁₇H₂₃NO₃, 70.56% C and 4.84% N) and standard soil samples of known SOC (1.6%) and N (0.14%) contents. Soil aggregates > 2 mm were excluded from analyses as the sample contained only small amounts of soil, but had a large proportion of gravel and organic litter and debris. The SOC content for a specific layer of thickness d was calculated using Eq. [1] (Lal et al., 1998):

[1]

Data Analysis
The data were subject to three separate analyses as follows. First, temporal changes in SOC content for treatments with topsoil application were fitted to the first-order kinetic equation as elaborated by and shown in Eq. [2]:

[2]

where C_t = SOC content in time t, C_e = equilibrium SOC content, and C_o = initial SOC content. The equilibrium pool was determined on the basis of SOC pools that are possibly achievable in such systems and those that were attained in long-term control treatments.

Second, all data were statistically analyzed to compute the analyses of variance table of F ratio using a completely randomized design (Minitab, 2000). Control sites were not included in statistical analyses because of a different management history. Tests of significance using analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed to determine differences between reclamation duration and depth, and are shown as least significant difference (LSD) at the 5% level of probability.

Third, assuming that treatments without topsoil application (which were a minimum of 30 yr old) are close to approaching equilibrium and that the final phase of a first-order kinetic equation is approximately linear, a straight line fit for these treatments was determined.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
General Observations on the Reclaimed Sites
The sites varied from nearly level to strongly sloping with ridgetops and benches. Most of the reclaimed areas had been graded to the original contour of the area and merged well with the landscape. Reclamation with grasses and legumes was the most common, but a substantial area was also forested. The soils were generally unsuited for crops because of droughtiness and restricted rooting depth. Most of the area is habitat for wildlife, especially white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and Canada geese (Branta canadensis).

The surface of reclaimed minelands had been covered with a layer of natural soil (referred to as topsoil), averaging to a depth of 25 to 30 cm. Typically, the surface layer was brown shaly silty clay loam about 12 to 25 cm thick. However, sites that had been reclaimed prior to 1972 did not receive topsoil. In some sites, high walls left after mining were still intact and deep gullies were also visible in some areas. The underlying material was a mixture of rock fragments and partially weathered fine earth material that was in or below the original soil profile. The rock fragments included mostly siltstone, shale, and sandstone but also included some limestone, carbonaceous shale, and coal (USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1996b). Reclaimed areas without topsoil application typically consisted of 35 to 60% rock fragments compared with 0 to 15% rock fragments in areas with topsoil. Rock fragments and high _b reduced the effective root zone. Roots tended to concentrate along soil–rock fragment interfaces, and few roots penetrated the underlying compact and massive spoil material.

Soil pH
Soil pH differed among treatments and ranged from near neutral in treatments with topsoil application to acidic or basic in treatments without topsoil application (Table 1). The variation in pH can be due to differences in the quantity, quality, and activity of carbonaceous or pyritic overburden material (Barnhisel and Hower, 1997). Reclamation duration and depth had a significant interactive effect on pH of the pasture treatment with topsoil application and the forest treatment without topsoil application. Reclamation duration had a significant effect on soil pH of the forest treatment with topsoil application, and the pasture treatment without topsoil application (Table 2).

The data in Table 3 show changes in _b with time of the pasture site with topsoil application for the 0- to 15- and 15- to 30-cm depths. The _b for the pasture control site was 1.42 Mg m^-3 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 1.43 Mg m^-3 for the 15- to 30-cm depth . The _b decreased from 1.64 Mg m^-3 in the recently reclaimed site to 1.53 Mg m^-3 in the 25-yr-old site for the 0- to 15-cm depth and from 1.63 to 1.56 Mg m^-3 for the 15- to 30-cm depth in the same time period. For the pasture treatment without topsoil application, _b decreased from 1.48 to 1.38 Mg m^-3 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and from 1.51 to 1.48 Mg m^-3 for the 15- to 30-cm depth (Table 5). Duration and depth effects on _b were significant for pasture treatments with and without topsoil application for both depths. Regression equations relating _b to reclamation duration for the 0- to 15- and 15- to 30-cm depths are shown in Table 3 for pasture with topsoil application and in Table 5 for pasture without topsoil application.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 3. Soil bulk density (b) under the pasture treatment with topsoil application.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 5. Soil bulk density (b) under the pasture and forest treatments without topsoil application.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 4. Soil bulk density (b) under the forest treatment with topsoil application.

Soil Organic Carbon Pool and Sequestration Rates
Pasture Treatment with Topsoil Application
The SOC pool of the pasture treatment with topsoil application increased from 9.2 Mg ha^-1 in the beginning of reclamation period to 55.4 Mg ha^-1 after 25 yr for the 0- to 15-cm depth and from 7.8 to 37.8 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth (Table 6) during the same duration. The interactive effect of reclamation duration and depth on SOC pool was not significant. The direct effect of reclamation duration was significant but that of depth was not (Table 6). There were significant differences between SOC pools of the 0-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 20-yr-old reclaimed sites and the 25-yr-old reclaimed site. The equilibrium SOC pools were 55 and 38 Mg ha^-1 for the 0- to 15- and 15- to 30-cm depths, respectively. The models for both depths are shown in Eq. [3] and [4]:

[3]

[4]

when SOC is in Mg ha^-1 and t is reclamation duration in years. The rate of SOC sequestration can be calculated by obtaining derivatives of these equations with respect to time.

Forest Treatment with Topsoil Application
The SOC pool of the forest treatment with topsoil application increased from 14 Mg ha^-1 in the beginning of the reclamation period to 48.4 Mg ha^-1 in 21 yr for the 0- to 15-cm depth, and from 8.4 to 14.5 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth over the same period (Table 7). Although neither duration nor depth had a significant effect, the duration x depth interactive effect was significant on the SOC pool. There also was a significant difference in SOC pool between depths for the final reclamation periods. The equilibrium SOC pools were 60 Mg ha^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 30 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth. The models for both depths are shown in Eq. [5] and [6]:

[5]

[6]

where SOC is in Mg ha^-1 and t is reclamation duration in years.

Pasture and Forest Treatments without Topsoil Application
The measured SOC pools for the pasture and forest reclamation treatments without topsoil application were attained after a minimum of 30 yr of reclamation, since this practice was discontinued after 1972. Hence, the pools were almost constant for the duration of the reclamation studied. For the pasture treatment without topsoil application, the SOC pool was 60 to 65 Mg ha^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 30 to 35 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth (Table 8). For the forest treatment without topsoil application, the SOC pool was 60 to 70 Mg ha^-1 for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 30 to 45 Mg ha^-1 for the 15- to 30-cm depth (Table 8). The interactive effects of reclamation duration and depth on SOC pool were significant for both treatments and depths. The SOC pools in both treatments and both depths were higher than the respective control sites. However, contamination due to coal and shale can lead to erroneous measurements in SOC content. The C to N ratios for pasture and forest treatments without topsoil application shown in Table 8 indicate differences among years, largely due to variations in the N pool. The high C to N ratios may be accentuated due to the presence of coal and low N pools. The interactive effects of reclamation duration and depth on C to N ratio were significant for both treatments and depths.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

• Land disturbance by mining caused drastic losses of SOC pool (more than 70% of the antecedent SOC pool was lost).
  
• Reclamation of mined lands decreased bulk density over a period of 20 to 30 yr.
  
• The SOC pool of reclaimed minesoils increased over the duration of reclamation.
  
• The potential of reclaimed minesoil to sequester SOC is 2 to 3 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 in the initial period and 0.4 to 0.7 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 after 20 to 30 yr under reclamation.
  
• Establishment of pasture increased SOC pool by 50 to 75 Mg ha^-1 over 20 to 25 yr in the top-30-cm depth.
  
• Mineland reclamation with topsoil application may sequester more SOC than without it.
  

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
This research was sponsored by the Office of Solar, Thermal, Biomass Power and Hydrogen Technologies within the Office of Utility Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, under Contract DE-AC05-96OR22464 with Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation. Special thanks are due to Mark Downing, Paul Loeffelman, Tom Archer, Gary Kaster, and Art Boyer of American Electric Power (AEP).

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 

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